The Differences Between Services Offering From Customer...

The differences between services offering from customer service are their idiosyncratic characteristics exist. The meaning of productivity differentiates from efficiency and operation because both identify some glitches in measuring productivity, especially in a service setting, (Johnston Jones, 2004, p.3-4). They also examined the relationship between operational and customer productivity. Zeithami, Bitner, Gremler (2013) distinguished service offering as a host of new services that was not offered in the past, for example, internet based companies like e-bay and amazon was unheard of. It s been called selling the invisible delivering intangible services as a core product offering (p.14). Another example was The Wall Street Journal which also offer an â€Å"interactive edition that allows customers to organize the newspaper to their own preferences and need† (Zeithami, Bitner, Gremler, 2013, p.14). With new technology service offerings, like â€Å"connected car†, according to Zeithami, Bitner, Gremler (2013) this allows individuals to access services and provide recommendation for shopping, weather, reservations for booking room and restaurants (p.14). However, Johnston Jones (2004) stated that invisibility or intangibility is just one feature that distinguishes services marketing from product marketing. Along with inseparability, variability, and perishability, these four characteristics affect the way customers conduct themselves during the procurement processShow MoreRelatedDifference Between Goods and Services1546 Words   |  7 PagesRaiwind Road, Lahore. PRODUCTS Anything offered to market for the Customers in order to satisfy their Needs Wants, is called Product. In fact, the products offered to market are called Market Offerings. They are also called Product Offerings. These products can be offered to market in a set or a bundle as well. Types of Products A company or an organization can offer two types of products to the customers:- 1) Goods Anything that can be offered to a market for attentionRead MoreThe Effect Of Cronbachs Alpha, Mean, And Standard Deviation For Each Question1642 Words   |  7 Pages1 Table 3 below presents the results for each of the main research constructs for the Cronbach’s alpha, mean, and standard deviation for each question. From this table, it is evident that the questions strongly relate to each construct measurement with all items scoring a greater than 0.8 Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The internal consistency of these items can be deemed reliable as researchers generally suggest that values above 0.7 are acceptable with values above 0.8 being preferable (PallantRead MoreMarketing Versus The Value Approach1024 Words   |  5 Pagesthe four Ps as the same as the Value Marketing approach. In this paper, it will be proper to compare and contrast both elements of the marking mix and set in motion the expectation and differences of Companies who apply one or the other app roach. At the end of this paper, readers will understand the obvious differences that come with each marketing approach. â€Æ' Prepare an essay comparing and contrasting a 4-P (price, product, place, and promotion) approach to marketing versus the value approach (creatingRead MoreThe Major Elements Of Marketing856 Words   |  4 Pagesthe value approach concentrates on delivering value to the consumers or customers, the 4Ps approach is evidently concentrated not on customers, but on the product itself. The major elements of the four Ps approach of marketing are product, price, place, and promotion; by that, the four Ps elevate product in the marketing plan while the value approach components are creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings. In the 4Ps approach of marketing, a product which may rival or even betterRead MoreCustomer Perceived Value905 Words   |  4 PagesCustomers will buy from the firm that they see as offering the highest perceived value . Customer perceived value  (CPV)  is the difference between the prospective customer’s evaluation of all the  benefits  and  all the costs of an offering and the perceived alternatives. Total customer value  is the perceived monetary value of the bundle or economic, functional, and psychological benefits customers expect from a given market offering. Total customer cost  is the bundle of costs customers expect toRead MoreUnited Parcel Service: Market Analysis1842 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract This paper is about United Parcel Service (UPS). The company is described, with specific reference to the nature of its service offering. UPS is an international firm, and as such there is discussion of the different countries in which it operates. The focal point of the paper is an analysis of UPS using the marketing mix, and with special attention to the way that the marketing mix is implemented differently in the different markets UPS serves. The four markets given the most attentionRead MoreThe Expectation Management Of A Parcel Delivery Company1522 Words   |  7 Pageslevel of service in order to redefine the company’s business model. It will look at the promises the company makes and if they are realistic and how they will follow through, the choices it offers it customers and if the too are realistic or sustainable. The intent is to create a tiered-value offering based on the customers communicated service criteria. Based on what a company learns from the communicati on of what the customer expects, the company should be able to define its customer service businessRead MoreMarketing Programs : American Airlines891 Words   |  4 PagesThere are four distinctive elements to services that can significantly influence the marketing programs, often referred to as the four I’s of services, and they consist of: 1. Intangibility- Unlike goods, services cannot be touched, held, or seen afore the purchase decision. To aid customers analyze and evaluate services, vendors try to display the benefits of consuming a service. For example, the book uses The American Airlines. American Airlines ad illustrates their new seats and highlights theRead MoreAnalysis Of Netflix : An Internal Analysis Technique1014 Words   |  5 Pageswherein strategists examine customers’ needs, company offerings, and competitors’ offerings to more clearly articulate what their company’s competitive advantage is and how it differs from those of competitors† (Pearce and Robinson, 2013, p. 177). Three circles analysis consists of three circles like the title says where the first circle represents the company’s offerings, second circle represents customers needs and third circle represents the competitors’ offerings. Three circles analysis is veryRead MoreIndustry Definition. Before Conducting An Industry Analysis,1117 Words   |  5 Pageslittle insight into the product offerings of each company and the differences between the two companies. The first industry both companies compete in is industrial gas production; each company produces hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and many other gases with industrial use cases. However, both Praxair and Linde also serve consumers directly with some products, including oxygen tanks for breathing or welding. In fact, Praxair has two retail locations in Kingston. This customer-facing portion of the business

Strategic Compensation Excellence and Plain Mediocrity

There is a clear business case for strategic compensation. Well managed rethinking of performance management, rewards and benefits leads to better business results, stronger capability, higher staff retention levels, heightened motivation and employee satisfaction. The success stories of organizations leading the field in strategic compensation prove that how employees are motivated, rewarded, recognized, fulfilled and challenged to perform better is a key differentiator between excellence and plain mediocrity. One of the best ways to keep employees from walking out the door is to pay a higher salary. Paying employees more in salary, however, wont necessarily align them with the companys priorities. In order to do that, companies need†¦show more content†¦Younger people want time off and money; older people want 401(k)s and good medical. Those in the child-bearing years want child care and flexible leave (Frase-Blunt, 2002). In order to make Plastec a more competitive company in regards to wages, Paul should utilize a third-quartile strategy (Mathis and Jackson, p. 366). Wage increases should be based on performance. Each position will be assigned a wage range and the employees productivity will determine his or her hourly wage. In the article Strategic compensation: Pay for performance, the author discuses several automated systems that can help managers sort and manage employees. Paul can utilize an On-demand compensation management application to assist him with developing the wage, salary, and reward system for Plastec (Dobbs, 2006). Compensating employees financially will often result in better performance and higher levels of motivation. Pay for performance plans are the most popular incentive plans in businesses today and would be ideal for Plastec to integrate into their new compensation plan. For a compensation plan to motivate performance, employees must believe that good performance will lead to more pay, want more pay, not believe that good performance will leads to negative consequences, see that other desired rewards besides payShow MoreRelatedStrategic Human Resource Management72324 Words   |  290 PagesBusiness Management Study Manuals Advanced Diploma in Business Management STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT The Association of Business Executives 5th Floor, CI Tower ï‚ · St Georges Square ï‚ · High Street ï‚ · New Malden Surrey KT3 4TE ï‚ · United Kingdom Tel: + 44(0)20 8329 2930 ï‚ · Fax: + 44(0)20 8329 2945 E-mail: info@abeuk.com ï‚ · www.abeuk.com  © Copyright, 2008 The Association of Business Executives (ABE) and RRC Business Training All rights reserved No part of this publication may beRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagessynthesis of approaches to organization theory. It will be welcomed by organization theory scholars and reflective practitioners and is a valuable companion for scholars and students of organization theory. Henk W. Volberda, Chair of the Department of Strategic Management Business Environment and Vice-Dean of the RSM Erasmus University, Netherlands At last, a text that brings organization theory into the 21st century! This is the first organization theory textbook to provide full and informed coverageRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pagesideas for improvements. Although MBWA has long had its advocates, it does present certain problems. First, the time managers spend directly observing the work force is time they are not doing their core job tasks like analysis, coordination, and strategic planning. Second, management based on subjective impressions gathered by walking around runs counter to a research and data-based approach to making managerial decisions. Third, it is also possible that executives who wander about will be seen asRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesan investigation of the association between management tools and techniques and organizational performance. According to 4,137 managers in North America, Europe, and Asia, the tools associated with organization success were: strategic planning, pay for performance, strategic alliances, customer satisfaction measurement, shareholder value analysis, mission and vision statements, benchmarking, cycle time reduction, agile strategies, self-directed teams, and groupware. These kinds of lists are useful

The Broad Scopes of Human Resources Literature Review Free Essays

Staff Recruitment The author emphasizes the importance of recruiting experienced staff errors non experienced staff because less training requirements and funding will not apply to get the new staff aligned with company standards. The ability for well-developed recruiters to staff organizations with experienced staff will assist training resources in applying skills to newly hired professionals to transition at a quicker rate than less experienced professional. Recruitment is vital to the success or failure Of an organization because Of the major influence placed on selection process, identifying eligible candidates, and gaining a competitive advantage. We will write a custom essay sample on The Broad Scopes of Human Resources Literature Review or any similar topic only for you Order Now Knowledgeable human resources staff has the responsibility for the acquirement process and should always be aware of crucial qualifications and specifications to determine staffing necessities. Recruitment of human resources also takes into account the analysis of the vacancies and projection of labor, because the basic result of these activities, description and the specifications for the job are essential in the recruitment process of the personnel†(Buses, 2009, p 108). Buses identifies the various positive sources of recruitment social media, newspapers, agencies, and references including internal and external used by human resources staff so the reader is not just soused on traditional methods of recruiting. Negative so races of recruitment such as stress testing, high pressure interviews, and case studies are identified as well as provide the equal balance of pros and cons of recruiting. There are numerous competencies linked to knowledge, skills, and abilities that human resources professionals must identify if candidates possess them to determine success in job performance. Four major competencies identified during the recruitment process are prior professional experience, long term success capabilities, behavioral events attached to leadership or management kills, and transitional knowledge. Human Resources Sustainability Private and public restructuring during downsizing have happened to many organizations in earlier years and most recent times during economical downfalls. There is a great importance in human resource professionals to know how to respond during these times and having the knowledge of which staff to retain during downsizing. The article by Caudate, Jacks, Savoir discuss the use of statistical analysis in collaboration with productivity to set the standards for productivity levels during restructuring. The study was inducted every month over a 30 month period to determine adequate parameters for estimating the restructure of the organization. â€Å"Our main objective is the organizational level of company sustainability and the fitting of corporate human resources to the real environment needs and capacities† (Caudate, Jacks, Savoir, 201 2, p 308). The usage of the quantitative study displayed the adage Tate needs for staffing to decrease the need to over or under staff in private or public sector. An effective and efficient quantitative method of determining staffing needs was conducted by considering salary and monthly working hours. Previous data was gathered from job descriptions, organizational charts, salary reports, contingency planning, and performance reports to obtain information on restructuring. If employees are selected for downsizing the method used to determine their tenure with the organization is based on lowest proficiency in performance standards. Similar to the literature by Base, the authors for this article identified strengths, weaknesses, and limitations to the study that involved the same participants completing the study being the same individuals with the possibility of being selected as part of the restructure. Job Stresses, Job Performance, and Job Dedication As part of the human resources world there are three aspects that can either help or hurt the employee and have a downward spiral effect to the organization when conscientiousness is considered. Job stresses are indicators that an employee may have emotional or physical symptoms that are linked to transactional theory. â€Å"According to the transactional theory of stress, people appraise important event they encounter in their daily life. At the primary appraisal, people categorically appraise an event as good or bad† (Lie, Lie, Mills, Fan, 2013, p 338). Job performances are key roles identified by human resource professional that determine necessary skills for the employee to successfully complete their daily job functions. â€Å"Lupine et al. ‘s (2005) meta-analysis found that challenge factors (e. G. Role demands, time pressure, workload) were positively related to job performance whereas hindrance factors (e. G. ,constraints, hassles, interpersonal conflict) were negatively related to job performance† (Ill, Lie, Mills, Fan, 201 338). According to Edwards, 2008 the P-Fit theory also suggests that conscientiousness moderates challenge stresses-?job p erformance relations. Job dedication is the personality that an employee displays to show that they have the tendency to go above and beyond to perform, working hard, staying goal oriented and focused on meeting or exceeding the mission or vision of the organization. The stresses within job dedication are centered on the ability to keep up with other goals or priorities that have been set amongst defeating the battle becoming overworked and a victim to job stresses. The collaboration of all job stresses, job performance, and job dedication in the workforce is used as conscientious for predicting job successors. Because conscientiousness is stably related to job performance, high- conscientious employees are preferred by organizations. However, this group would suffer a great deal when they experience hindrance stresses, such as organizational policies or constraints† (Lie, Lie, Mills, Fan, 2013, p 338). Conclusion Reviewing all three of the articles provided a diverse level of information about human resources from the level of recruitment, sustainability, performance indicators, and conscientious in relation to workability skills. There were suggestions that implied in each of the authors literature that revises methods were used to obtain information, but with the notion that innovation could improve the study further. How to cite The Broad Scopes of Human Resources Literature Review, Essays

Blade Runner Analytical Essay Example For Students

Blade Runner Analytical Essay Blade Runner written by Ridley Scott is a movie based in the future. It is Scott’s depiction of what is to become of Earth. But technological advances shown in Blade Runner have come to a point where humanity can be questioned. Reality is blurred and the nature of what is human is changing. Replicants appear identical to humans and even have emotions, while the real humans appear cold and unemotional. So who is really human and what does it mean to be humane? Technology is a key part of the movie and its advances are shown through out the movie. Deckard lives in a world with man made animals, flying cars, off world colonies and more importantly manufactured humans called replicants. The fact that the replicants are equal to humans physically and even mentally is troubling and brings forward major questions. But with all these advancements Los Angeles is portrayed by Scott as a dark and gloomy wasteland of mostly empty high rise buildings and full of dark alleys and dirty streets. It is not a nice looking place and is without trees and animals, left is only the formidable skyscrapers and manufactured animals. It seems to have consumed everything as no attempt is made to show elsewhere. With the off world colonies to go to, Earth has been abandoned and all thats left is a polluted wasteland for the rejects and lowlifes. The humans inhabiting Earth are shown to be cold, brutal and lacking any compassion. There are the cops like Bryant and Gaff who appear gloomy and unemotional just doing there jobs and having little regard for the replicants or â€Å"skin jobs† as Bryant called them. Asians are shown frequently the movie and make up the bulk of people on the street. This makes the city look like a big China town with the Asians selling anything from take away food to manufactured animals. These people must not be important enough to go to the off world colonies or don’t want to go. The rest of people shown are street scums, cripples, midgets and sick people like J. R Sebastion who has a life shortening disease. Lastly there is Tyrell who is the powerful god like figure who seems to rule and dominate the city with the towering buildings. The replicants in Blade Runners are almost identical to humans, as they physically look exactly identical to normal people. They even make there own decisions, have emotions and Roy even shows compassion at the end. Bauldy, Zhora and Pris just want to survive and do not have or show developed emotions. Rachael differs to them as we see her find out she is a replicant. She is nieve was unaware of what she was. But Rachael shows emotions and reveals her personal side later on. Roy Batty is the leader of the rouge replicants and is shown as a prodigal son returning to his maker. He is the Nexus 6 model replicant and shows superior strength and intelligence and returns to Tyrell hi maker. Roy is a designed as a killing machine but he shows more than that. At the end he shows compassion and pity for Deckard and saves him, then dies with dignity. The technology of Earth has come to a point where the replicants which, are not born but manufactured by humans are so real that they are almost undetectable. They show all the signs of being human and especially Rachael and Roy appear to be humane. With the real humans being so cold and unemotional puts forward the question of what makes someone human or humane. In the dark and gloomy world the replicants are vulnerable and struggling for life. Does a machine do this? Does it come to the point where we need to give the replicants rights that we demand? That is the result of such technological advances that we may take our selves and then Ridley Scott’s book may not be fiction.

Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ Essay Example

Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ Essay Swift’s ‘Gulliver’s Travel’ and Voltaire’s ‘Candide’ are typical literature works during the Enlightenment period. Both authors use satire in their works. Satire is literary form which means irony. Therefore, they have some similarities. They both want to expose human vices through satiric tone. Due to different personal styles, there are many differences between two novels. Two novels use satire to criticize human weakness. In ‘Gulliver’s Travel’, Swift makes up a horse society Houyhnhnm and a brutal animal Yahoo. Gulliver has to admit that human beings are yahoos after a series comparison between human and yahoo. Vices of human beings are exposed by the Swift’s satiric tone. In ‘Candide’, Voltaire presents a story of the voyage of Candide. By describing how Candide travel around the world and the ridiculous circumstances he encounters, Voltaire also use satire to reveals the corruption of human beings. Both of them follow the philosophic thinking which is passion verses reason. They are questioning human nature. What’s more, both authors create an inexistent society by imagination, horse society Houyhnhnm and gold city Eldorado. By comparing to reality world, the civilization of imaginary societies is more rational for human beings. This is how satire works. Creating a perfect world and comparing to corrupted society, it’s easier to convince readers. Satire is the tool of two authors presents their essential purposes that criticize the human weakness and questioning the human nature. The differences between two novels are significant. We will write a custom essay sample on Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Although both novels are about characters’ travel, they are different styles. In ‘Gulliver’s travel’, Swift emphasizes the process how Gulliver realizes that he is a yahoo. No matter Gulliver description about the war among the princes of Europe, Queen Anne, and a first minister in the courts of Europe, or master’s observation about the characteristics of yahoos, Swift uses a strong critical tone to point out the vices of human beings. Gulliver uses tone of solemnity to explain how the yahoo and human have in common. Ironically, Gulliver insists to refuse his status of yahoo, the procedure of Gulliver’s acceptation to the status of yahoo is under a depressed atmosphere. When Gulliver backs home, he is still struggling to be a rational creature in his mind which is Houyhnhnm or to be a corrupted creature which is yahoo. Swift’s sharp criticism makes the novel isn’t as fun as ‘Candide’. However, it makes reader think over the purpose of his criticism. On the contrary, Voltaire’s ‘Candide’ is full of black humor. Although Candide goes through a lot of ridiculous circumstances and suffers a lot, the unexpected content makes his voyage funny. In ‘Gulliver’ Travel’, the observation of horse society and comparison between yahoo and human are important components of Swift’s satire. In ‘Candide’, every character expresses the satiric tone of Voltaire. Pangloss, teacher of Candide, always believe that â€Å"Everything is for the best in this best of all possible world†, escapes from death several times. He still insists his philosophic thinking which exactly brings him in trouble. Cunegonde’s brother constantly refuses Candide marry with his sister even Cunegonde isn’t beautiful anymore. Other characters like Cunegonde, the old lady, Martin, they all have been through a lot of misfortune circumstances. Each character has its own function to from Voltaire’s satire. Volvaire uses his tone of mockery to present a ridiculous voyage of Candide and reveal to us world is cruel place. The witness makes Candide’s voyage delight even they suffer a lot of misfortune. Readers easily convinced by their ridicules encounters. Satire is main method used in Swift’s ‘Gulliver’s travel’ and Voltaire’s ‘Candide’. As typical literature during enlightenment period, both novels are questioning about human nature. Swiftly uses critical tone to represent his idea. Voltaire uses humor to reflect the corruption of human beings. Two novels not only succeed to present the readers then about purpose of authors; but also are great treasure for readers now.

Capital Punishment Controversy essays

Capital Punishment Controversy essays No public policy concern has been debated so much persistently and aggressively as that of the capital punishment. (Unnever; Cullen, 2006) Is it necessary to permit a state to put to death few of its criminals? Has the capital punishment ethical sanction, or is it ethically essential, under particular conditions? Such questions are quite contentious and significant that has confronted US state legislatures during the current years. (Lee; Mooney, 1999) A comprehension of the US attitudes relating to capital punishment is vital in this backdrop not only because the US is again imposing execution to its criminal offenders, but since it generates a rough estimate of the standards of maturity of the American civilization. (Bohm, 1987) Capital punishment is an issue which has both supporters and those who oppose the concept. Even though capital punishment has been opposed on several grounds, it is to be understood that capital punishment is an issue which need to be supported for retributive reasons, wherein the punishment provided ought to be proportionate to the crime pretreated; for deterrent reasons so that future victims lives are saved from criminals; since it is cheap, less cruel and better than imprisonment; and since majority of the public are in favor of the issue irrespective of the fact that it has been argued that capital punishment is being racially biased. The issue of Capital Punishment controversy in the US is predominated by the deceptive voice of the anti-death penalty movement. The culture of lies as well as deceit is so influential that several of the falsehoods are presently incorrectly accepted as being facts. (Sharp, 1997) Those who are not in favor of capital punishment advocate that in the US for a short span after Gregg v. Georgia reestablished capital punishment there was stringent legal supervision of the capital punishment and much hurdle in its application, but that phase is prese...

Law of international organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Law of international organisations - Essay Example The idea of human rights receives formal universal recognition that the international community strives to maintain and enforce encoded through the United Nations Charter signed on June 26, 1945 with the main objective of saving generations of humans from war and reaffirms the faith in fundamental rights and freedoms. The main objective of the United Nations is to achieve international cooperation, through promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and the fundamental freedoms that accrue to them without the discrimination in terms of aspects such as sex, race, language or religion. It is important to note that the enforcement of these rights and freedoms can be undertaken through joint or separate actions by the member states. The provisions of the Articles of the United Nations Charter have the force of prudent international law as the charter is a treaty and binds to those nations that have ratified it. Therefore, state parties are required to fulfil the obligations and th e responsibilities enshrined in the Charter including the obligations to defend human privileges and the major liberties, the promotion of the observance of the civil liberties and the cooperation with the United Nations in attaining these inherent obligations. ... Since the Universal Declaration became international law there have been other conventions and treaties that create regional courts that also help in the enforcement of fundamental rights and freedoms. Due to the dramatic increase of human rights activities in the twentieth and twenty first century, there has been need to combine the monitoring of the human rights violations and matters concerning their enforcement. The establishment of the International Criminal Court formed a vital part of an emerging system of international human rights protection in that it is empowered to take legal action and castigate individuals liable for offenses against humankind. The growing international awareness of the need to protect human rights and guarantee freedoms has rejuvenated the need for upholding them. Yet, serious violation and deprivation of human rights and fundamental freedoms still exist that require a remedy in the shortest time possible. To remedy this situation, there have been regi onal courts with the jurisdiction to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms. However, these courts must strive and adhere to the already established norm that the supremacy of the United Nations Charter. In Britain, for example, the Human Rights Act of 1998 is an act of Parliament, whose main aim is to ensure that it gives further force the laws concerning human rights, contained in the European Convention and the United Nations Charter. It gives the courts in the United Kingdom the power to deal with those issues, which might cause the citizens of this country to go to the European Court of Human Rights. The act makes it illegal for all public bodies

Statistical Process Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Statistical Process Management - Essay Example According to research, the number of downtime errors for the samples chosen ranges from zero to ten. On the other hand, the fraction of defect for all software in each organization ranges from 0 to 0.1. This means that in every one hundred software, in each of the service-based organizations, the number of defective software ranges from 0 to 10. The data collected by PYRON Software Company is a collection of data gathered in 6 months. Therefore, in each month, the number of downtime errors for each of the service-based organizations ranges from 0 to 1.7. Also, the research done in all the 20 samples showed that the average percentage availability is 99.4%. According to the interpretation above, the service performance for the past six months for PIRON Software is in control. This is because the software are used by the organizations approximately 99.4% of the time, but the average defectiveness remains less than 10% (Oakland,

Leadership Profile of Mohmad Ali Jinah Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership Profile of Mohmad Ali Jinah - Essay Example Great suggestions proposed by the right being in the wrong situation, or to the immoral audience, or at the badly chosen time are meant to fail. Great leaders are those who employ and focus the appropriate combination of elements on the dot to impact their world in impressive ways. Remarkably, the majority of what we know about leadership derives from the observation of how folks relate to their immediate heads. Nonetheless, probing individual opinions of â€Å"leadership† at the national level is a striking intention (Meigs, 2001, p. 4). On the surface, it may look that leadership behavior, for instance, aligning progressions and procedures may be more effortlessly conceptualized at the national level than personal leadership deeds such as performing with decorum. Albeit leaders may appear and depart, the ways they embark upon tasks and state of affairs and care for people is of the essence. Path-goal theory is founded on the precepts of expectancy tenet which puts forward that subordinates will be forced if they suppose they are competent of completing their mission if they deem their exertions will effect in a positive ending, and if they think that the returns for accomplishing their work are meaningful. Leadership actions are normally classified as: 3. Achievement-oriented: The leader highlights the attainment of complicated tasks and the meaning of admirable performance and concurrently demonstrates buoyancy that subordinates will carry out well. Jinnah helped out subordinates in identifying their targets and simplified their chore. He confiscated barriers from their routes and supplied continuous patronage when the task was shapeless and multipart. He always picked a style of leadership which was best fitted to the subordinates, thus raised the contentment level of his subordinates.

Effect of Social Networks on Teaching Methods

Effect of Social Networks on Teaching Methods ABSTRACT Background. Research on social networks in schools is increasing rapidly. Network studies outside education have indicated that the structure of social networks is partly affected by demographic characteristics of network members. Yet, knowledge on how teacher social networks are shaped by teacher and school demographics is scarce. Purpose. The goal of this study was to examine the extent to which teachers work related social networks are affected by teacher and school demographic characteristics. Method. Survey data were collected among 316 educators from 13 elementary schools in a large educational system in the Netherlands. Using social network analysis, in particular multilevel p2 modeling, we analyzed the effect of teacher and school demographics on individual teachers probability of having relationships in a work discussion network. Conclusions. Findings indicate that differences in having relationships were associated with differences in gender, grade level, working hours, formal position, and experience. We also found that educators tend to prefer relationships with educators with the same gender and from the same grade level. Moreover, years of shared experience as a school team appeared to affect the likelihood of teacher relationships around work related discussion. INTRODUCTION Relationships among educators are more and more regarded as an important element to schools functioning, and a potential source of school improvement. Educational practitioners and scholars around the world are targeting teacher interaction as a way to facilitate knowledge exchange and shared teacher practice through a variety of collaborative initiatives, such as communities of practice, professional learning communities, and social networks (Daly Finnigan, 2009; Hord, 1997; Lieberman McLaughlin, 1992; Wenger, 1998). The growing literature base around these concepts suggests that relationships matter for fostering a climate of trust and a safe and open environment to implement reform and engage in innovative teacher practices (Bryk Schneider, 2002; Louis, Marks, Kruse, 1996; Coburn Russell, 2008; Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, Galagher, 2007). Social network literature asserts that relationships matter because the configuration of social relationships offers opportunities and constraints for collective action (Burt, 1983, Coleman, 1990; Granovetter, 1973; Lochner, Kawachi, Kennedy, 1999). For instance, the extent to which an organizational network supports the rate and ease with which knowledge and information flows through the organization may provide it with an advantage over its competitors (Nahapiet Ghoshal, 1998; Tsai, 2001). While social network studies have mainly concentrated on the consequences of social networks for individuals and groups, less attention has been paid to how social networks are conditioned upon individual characteristics and behavior (Borgatti Foster, 2003). A developing set of studies in organizational literature is focusing on how attributes of individuals such as personality traits affect their social network (e.g., Burt, Janotta Mahoney, 1998; Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 2001; Madhavan, Caner , Prescott, Koka, 2008), how individuals select others to engage in relationships (Kossinets Watts, 2006; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001), and how organizations enter into alliances with other organizations (Gulati Gargiulo, 1999). These studies offer valuable insights in potential individual and organizational attributes that may affect the pattern of social relationships in school teams. Attributes that are especially worth investigating for their potential to shape the social structure of school teams are demographic characteristics (cf. Ely, 1995; Tsui, Egan, OReilly, 1992). Demographic characteristics are more or less constant elements that typify teachers, their relationships, and schools based on socio-economic factors such as age, gender, teaching experience, and school team composition. Several network studies have suggested that networks are at least in part shaped by demographic characteristics of individuals, their dyadic relationships, and the network (Brass, 1984; Heyl, 1996; Ibarra 1992, 1995; Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). For instance, several studies reported that relationships among individuals with the same gender are more likely than relationships among individuals with opposite gender (a so-called homophily effect) (Baerveldt, Van Duijn, Vermeij, Van Hemert, 2004; McPherson, Smith-Lovin Co ok, 2001). These studies, however, seldom purposely aim to examine the impact of demographic characteristics on social networks and consequently only include few demographic variables of network members. Insights in the extent to which social relationships are formed in the light of multiple individual and organizational demographic characteristics are limited, and even more so in the context of education. We argue that such groundwork knowledge is crucial for all those who aim to optimize social networks in support of school improvement and, ultimately, student achievement. This chapter aims to examine the extent to which social networks in school teams are shaped by individual, dyadic, and school level demographic variables, such as teachers gender and age, school team composition and team experience, and students socio-economic status. We conducted a study among 316 educators in 13 Dutch elementary schools. Results of this study were expected to increase insights in the constant social forces that may partly define teachers relationships in their school teams, and discover potential tendencies around, for example, homophily and structural balance. Based on a literature review of social network studies that include demographic variables in a wide range of settings, we pose several hypotheses on the extent to which demographical variables at the individual, dyadic, and school level may affect teachers social networks. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Individual level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Social network literature has suggested various individual demographic characteristics to affect their pattern of relationships, and as such social networks as a whole (Heyl, 1996; Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). Following these suggestions, we will first review how individual level demographic characteristics may affect teachers social networks. We focus on the individual demographics gender, formal position, working hours, experience at school, age, and grade level for their potential influence on teachers patterns of social relationships and school teams social network structure. Gender. The likelihood of having relationships in a network may be associated with gender (Metz Tharenou, 2001; Moore, 1990; Stoloff et al., 1999; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). Previous research has indicated that gender affects network formation (Burt et al., 1998; Hughes, 1946; Ibarra, 1993, 1995, Moore, 1990; Pugliesi, 1998; Van Emmerik, 2006) and that, in general, women tend to have more relationships than men (Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 1998). These differences are already found in childhood (Frydenberg Lewis, 1993) and continue to exist through life (Parker de Vries, 1993; Van der Pompe De Heus, 1993). In various settings and cultures, both men and women were found to use men as network routes to achieve their goals and acquire information from more distant domains (Aldrich et al., 1989; Bernard et al., 1988). Following these findings, we hypothesize that male teachers will have a higher likelihood of receiving more relationships than female tea chers, and women will send more relationships than men (Hypothesis 1a). Formal position. Previous research in organizations (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Moore, 1990) and education (Coburn, 2005; Coburn Russell, 2008; Daly Finnigan, 2009; Heyl, 1996) suggests that the formal position of individuals may be related to their relational activity and popularity. For instance, Lazega Van Duijn (1997) found that lawyers were more often sought out for advice when they held a higher hierarchical position. Research has indicated that the network position of an organizational leader is important in terms of access and leveraging social resources through social relationships as well as brokering between teachers that are themselves unconnected (Balkundi Harrison, 2006; Balkundi Kilduff, 2005). In line with these studies, we expect that principals will be more sought out for work related discussions than teachers. We also expect that principals will report to be involved in more relationships than teachers, since they depend on these relationships to gather informat ion and convey knowledge, plans, and expertise to support student learning and monitor the functioning of teachers and the school. Moreover, principals are reported to occupy a strategic position in the flow of information between the district office and teachers and relay important policy and organizational information from the district office to the teachers (Coburn, 2005; Coburn Russell, 2008). Therefore, we hypothesize that principals have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving relationships (Hypothesis 1b). Working hours. In addition, the number of working hours that an educator spends at the school may also affect his/her opportunity to initiate and maintain social relationships. Recent research suggests that the relationship between network embeddedness and job performance is related to working hours (Van Emmerik Sanders, 2004). In line with this finding, it is hypothesized that educators who work full time will have a higher probability of sending and receiving relationships than educators with part time working hours (Hypothesis 1c). Experience at the school. Another demographic characteristic that may affect an individuals pattern of relationships is seniority, or experience at the school. The previously mentioned law study (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997) indicated that senior lawyers had a higher probability of being sought out for advice than junior lawyers. Besides having more work experience, a perceived network advantage of senior lawyers may be that they have built more strong, durable, and reliable relationships over time, and therefore have access to resources that are unattainable for more junior lawyers. Accordingly, we hypothesize that educators who have more experience in their school team have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving work discussion relationships than educators who have less experience in the school team (Hypothesis 1d). Age. Network research in other contexts found age differences in relation to the amount of relationships that individuals maintain (Cairns, Leung, Buchanan, Cairns, 1995; Gottlieb Green, 1984). In general, these studies suggest that the amount of relationships that people maintain tend to decrease with age. However, with increased age, experience at the school also increases together with the amount of relationships based on seniority (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997). In concordance with the latter, we hypothesize that age will positively affect the probability of work related ties, meaning that older teachers are more likely to send and receive work related relationships than younger teachers (Hypothesis 1e) Grade Level. Within schools, formal clustering around grade level may affect the pattern of relationships among educators. The grade level may to a certain extent affect the amount of interaction among educators since grade level teams may have additional grade level meetings and professional development initiatives are often targeted at the grade level (Daly et al., in press; McLaughlin Talbert, 1993; Newmann, Kings, Youngs, 2000; Newmann Wehlage, 1995; Wood, 2007; Stoll Louis, 2007). Dutch elementary schools are relatively small compared to U.S. elementary schools, and are often divided into a grade level team for the lower grades (K 2) and a grade level team for the upper grades (3 6). The amount of relationships that teachers have, may partly be defined by the requirements of and opportunities provided by their grade level team. We may expect that teachers that teach upper grade levels send and receive more relationships than teachers that teach lower grade levels because o f the increasingly diverse and demanding curriculum in the upper grades combined with intensified student testing and preparation for education after elementary school. These conditions may require more work related discussion of upper grade level teachers than of lower grade level teachers. As such, we expect that teachers that teach upper grade levels have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving relationships than teachers that teach lower grade levels (Hypothesis 1f). Dyadic level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Dyadic level demographics are demographics that typify the relationship between two individuals. Dyadic level effects give insights in network homophily. Network homophily is arguably the most well-known social network concept that often explicitly focuses on demographic characteristics of network members. The concept of homophily, also known by the adage birds of a feather flock together, addresses similarity between two individuals in a dyadic (paired) relationship. Homophily literature builds on the notion that individuals are more likely to develop and maintain social relationships with others that are similar to them on specific attributes, such as gender, organizational unit, or educational level (Marsden, 1988; McPherson Smith-Lovin, 1987; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001). Similarly, individuals who differ from each other on a specific attribute are less likely to initiate relationships, and when they do, heterophilous relationships also tend to dissolve at a faster pace than homophilous relationships (McPherson et al., 2001). Homophily effects result from processes of social selection and social influence. Social selection refers to the idea that individuals tend to choose to interact with individuals that are similar to them in characteristics such as behavior and attitudes. At the same time, individuals that interact with each other influence each others behavior and attitudes, which may increase their similarity (McPherson et al., 2001). This is a process of social influence. In addition, individuals who share a relationship also tend to share similar experiences through their relationship (Feld, 1981). Homophily is related to the concept of structural balance. In the footsteps of cognitive balance theory, structural balance theory poses that individuals will undertake action to avoid or decrease an unbalanced network (Heider, 1958). Over time, people tend to seek balance in their network by initiating new strong relationships with friends of friends and terminate relationships with friends of enemies or enemies of friends (Wasserman Faust, 1997). As a result from this tendency towards structural balance, relatively homogenous and strong cliques may be formed that give the network some stability over time (Kossinets Watts, 2006). Structural balance and network homophily may have also have a negative influence on individuals social networks as the resulting network homogeneity and pattern of redundant relationships may limit their access to valuable information and expertise (Little, 1990; Burt, 1997, 2000). In this study we focus on two types of similarity that may define teachers relationships, namely gender similarity and grade level similarity. Gender similarity. A dyadic attribute that may affect teachers patterns of social relationships is the gender similarity between two teachers. Several studies have shown that work and voluntary organizations are often highly gender segregated (Bielby Baron, 1986, McGuire, 2000; McPherson Smith-Lovin, 1986, 1987; Popielarz, 1999; Van Emmerik, 2006). This gender homophily effect already starts at a young age (Hartup, 1993; Cairns Cairns, 1994; Furman Burmester, 1992). In the context of education, Heyl (1996) suggested an effect of gender homophily on interactional patterns among teachers, indicating that for men and women relationships with the opposite gender are less frequent or intense than relationships among men or relationship among women. In line with this suggestion, we hypothesize a homophily effect for gender, meaning that educators will prefer same-gender relationships over relationships with teachers of the opposite gender (Hypothesis 2a). Grade level similarity. Another dyadic attribute that may shape the pattern of teachers relationships is the grade level. In the Netherlands, schools are relatively small compared to the Unitesd States, with often only one full time or two part time teachers per grade level. Commonly, Dutch school teams are formally divided into two grade level levels representing the lower (onderbouw, often K-2 or K-3) and upper grades (bovenbouw, often grades 3-6 or 4-6), which are often located in close physical proximity. Recent research suggests that teachers who are located closely to each another are more likely to interact with each other than with teachers that are less physically proximate (Coburn Russell, 2008). Moreover, most schools have separate breaks for the lower and upper grades, and some schools hold additional formal meetings for the lower/upper grades to discuss issues related to these grades. Since shared experiences are argued to result in greater support among individuals (Fe ld, 1981; Suitor Pillemer, 2000; Suitor, Pillemer, Keeton, 1995), these organizational features will increase the opportunity for teachers from the same grade level to interact relative to teachers from a different grade level. Therefore, we hypothesize a homophily effect for grade level, meaning that teachers will more likely maintain relationships with teachers from their own grade level than with teachers that teach the other grade level (e.g., lower or upper level) (Hypothesis 2b). School level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Although teachers can often choose with whom they interact, the social structure of their schools network is partly outside their span of control (Burt, 1983; Brass Burkhardt, 1993; Gulati, 1995). Just as individual relationships may constrain or support a teachers access to and use of resources (Degenne Forse, 1999), the social structure surrounding the teacher may influence the extent to which teachers may shape their network so as to expect the greatest return on investment (Burt, 1992; Flap De Graaf, 1989; Ibarra, 1992, 1993, 1995; Lin Dumin, 1986; Little, 1990). Because of the embeddedness and interdependency of individuals in their social network, relationships and attributes at a higher level will affect lower-level relationships (Burt, 2000). As such, demographic characteristics at the school level may affect teachers patterns of relationships. We pose that the following school level demographic characteristics affect teachers pattern of social relationships: gender ratio , average age, school team experience, school size, school team size, and socio-economic status of the schools students. Gender ratio and average age. Above and beyond the influence of individual demographics on the tendency to form relationships, there may be aggregates of these individual demographics at the level of the school team that may affect teachers tendency to form and maintain relationships. Research in a law firm demonstrated that above the influence of individual level seniority, a lawyers position in the firms network was in part dependent on the ratio of juniors to seniors in the team (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997). For school teams, a compositional characteristic that may affect patterns of relationships is gender ratio, or the ratio of the number of female to male teachers. In a school team with a high ratio of female teachers (which is not unusual in Dutch elementary education) male teachers have fewer options for homophily friendships with same-sex peers than women. Therefore, male teachers in such a team may have a lower tendency to maintain relationships in general and a higher propens ity towards relationships with women than men in school teams with relatively more male teachers. Research confirms that the gender composition of a team may significantly affect gender homophily, with the minority gender often having much more heterophilous networks than the majority (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001). Therefore, we expect that the gender ratio of the school team will shape teachers social networks. In line with previous empirical work suggesting that women tend to have more relationships than men (Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 1998), we expect that teachers in school teams with a high female ratio will have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving ties than individuals in teams with relatively more male teachers (Hypothesis 3a). Along the same lines, if we expect that age will increase the likelihood of sending and receiving relationships, then increased average age of a school team may also enhance the probability of relationships. Therefore, we hypothesize that average age is positively related to the probability of ties (Hypothesis 3b). Team experience, school size, and team size. Prior research has indicated that individuals are more likely to reach out to others with whom they had previous relationships (Coburn Russell, 2008). Given the time and shared experiences that are necessary for building relationships, we may assume that the number of years that a school team has been functioning in its current configuration, without members leaving or joining the team, may affect teachers lilelihood of maintaining relationships. Therefore we include school team experience as a school level demographic that may positively affect teachers patterns of relationships (Hypothesis 3c). Other school demographics that may affect teachers inclinations to form relationships are school size (number of students) and team size (number of educators). Previous literature has suggested that the size of organizations and networks is directly related to the pattern of social relationships in organizations (Tsai, 2001). In general, the amou nt of individual relationships and the density of social networks decrease when network size increases. As such, we may expect a lower probability of relationships in schools that serve more students (Hypothesis 3d) and schools with larger school teams (Hypothesis 3e). Students socio-economic status. Social networks can be shaped by both endogenous and exogenous forces (Gulati, Nohria, Zaheer, 2000). An exogenous force to the school team that has been demonstrated to affect schools functioning is the socio-economic status (SES) of its students (Sirin, 2005; White, 1982). We argue that the socio-economic status of the children attending the school may influence the probability that teachers will form relationships. For instance, teachers perceptions of the urgency for communication and innovation may be dependent on the community surrounding the school. Typically, schools that serve more high-needs communities are associated with greater urgency in developing new approaches (Sunderman, Kim Orfield, 2005), which may relate to an increased probability of relationships among educators. Therefore, we hypothesize that teachers in low SES schools will have a higher probability of having relationships than teachers in high SES schools (Hypothesis 3f). METHOD Context The study took place at 13 elementary schools in south of The Netherlands. The schools were part of single district that provided IT, financial, and administrative support to 53 schools in the south of The Netherlands. At the time of the study, the district had just initiated a program for teacher development that involved a benchmark survey for the monitoring of school improvement. We selected a subsample of all the district schools based on a team size of 20 or more team members, since trial runs of the p2 estimation models encountered difficulties converging with smaller network sizes and more schools. The original sample consisted of 53 schools that, with the exception of school team and number of students, did not differ considerably from the 13 sample schools with regard to the described demographics. The context of Dutch elementary schools was beneficial to the study in three ways. First, the school teams were relatively small, which facilitated the collection of whole network data. Second, school teams are social networks with clear boundaries, meaning the distinction of who is part of the team is unambiguous for both researchers and respondents. Third, in contrast to many organizations, school organizations are characterized by relatively flat organizational structures, in which educators perform similar tasks and job diversification is relatively small. Often, educators have had similar training backgrounds, and are receiving school wide professional development as a team. Therefore, despite natural differences in individual characteristics, teachers in Dutch elementary school teams are arguably more comparable among each other than organizational employees in many other organizations, making demographic characteristics possibly less related to differences in tasks or task-rel ated status differences. Sample The sample schools served a student population ranging from 287 to 545 students in the age of 4 to 13. We collected social network data from 13 principals and 303 teachers, reflecting a response rate of 94.5 %. Of the sample, 69.9 % was female and 54.8 % worked full time (32 hours or more). Educators age ranged from 21 to 62 years (M = 46.5, sd = 9.9 years). Additional demographic information is depicted in Table 1 and 2. Instruments Social networks. We assessed the influence of demographic variables on a network that was aimed at capturing work related communication among educators. The network of discussing work related matters was selected because it is assumed to be an important network for the exchange of work related information, knowledge, and expertise that may affect individual and group performance (Sparrowe, Liden, Wayne, Kraimer, 2001). Moreover, according to the previous analysis into network multiplexity (see Chapter 1), this network appeared to be an instrumental network with relatively small overlap with expressive networks. We asked respondents the following question: Whom do you turn to in order to discuss your work? A school-specific appendix was attached to the questionnaire comprising the names of the school team members, accompanied by a letter combination for each school team member (e.g., Ms. Yolanda Brown = AB). The question could be answered by indicating a letter combination for each colleague who the respondent considered part of his/her work discussion network. The number of colleagues a respondent could indicate as part of his/her network was unlimited. Individual, dyadic, and school level attributes. We collected demographic variables to assess how individual, dyadic, and school level attributes shape the pattern of social relationships among educators. At the individual level, we examined the following individual attributes: gender, formal position (teacher/principal), working hours (part time/full time), number of years experience at school, age, and whether a teacher was teaching in lower grade or upper grade. At the dyadic level, we included similarity of gender and similarity of grade level (lower/upper grade). At the school level, we investigated school size, team size, gender ratio, average age, years of team experience in current formation, and students socio-economic status (SES). Data analysis Testing the hypotheses Since our dependent variable consisted of social network data that are by nature interdependent (relationships among individuals), the assumption of data independence that underlies conventional regression models is violated. Therefore, we employed multilevel p2 models to investigate the effect of individual, dyadic, and school level demographics on having work-related relationships (Van Duijn et al., 2004; Baerveldt et al., 2004; Zijlstra, 2008). The p2 model is similar to a logistic regression model, but is developed to handle dichotomous dyadic outcomes. In contrast to a univariate logistic regression model, the p2 model controls for the interdependency that resides in social network data. The model focuses on the individual as the unit of analysis. The p2 model regards sender and receiver effects as latent (i.e., unobserved) random variables that can be explained by sender and receiver characteristics (Veenstra, et al., 2007). In the multilevel p2 analyses, the dependent variable is the aggregate of all the nominations a team member sent to or received from others. A positive effect thus indicates that the independent demographic variable has a positive effect on the probability of a relationship. We used the p2 program within the StOCNET software suite to run the p2 models (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Van Duijn, Snijders, Zijlstra, 2004). This software has been recently modified to fit multilevel data (Zijlstra, 2008; Zijlstra, Van Duijn, Snijders, 2006). We make use of this recent development by calculating multilevel p2 models for our data. The social network data in this study have a three-level structure. Network data were collected from 13 schools (Level 3) with 316 educators (Level 2) and 11.241 dyadic relationships (Level 1). To examine the influence of individual, dyadic, and school level demographics on the likelihood of having work related relationships we constructed two multilevel models. In the first multilevel model, the effects of individual and dyadic level demographics on the possibility of having relationships were examined. In the second multilevel model, school level demographic variables were added to the model in order to explain the additional effect of school level demographics on the possibility of having relationships, above and beyond the effects of individual and dyadic level demographics. For the multilevel p2 models, we used a subsample of the 13 schools with a team size of 20 educators or more. We selected this subsample of 13 schools from a larger sample of 53 schools to reduce computing ti me and to examine schools that were more comparable in network size. Still, each model estimation took about six hours of computing time. How to interpret p2 estimates In general, effects in p2 models can be interpreted in the following manner. Results on the variables of interest include both sender effects and receiver effects, meaning effects that signify the probability of sending or receiving a relationship nomination. A positively significant parameter estimate can be interpreted as the demographic variable having a positive effect on the probability of a relationship (Veenstra et al., 2007). For instance, a positive sender effect of formal position with dummy coding (teacher/principal) means that the position with the upper dummy code (principal) will have a higher probability of sending relationships than the position with the lower dummy code (teacher). To assess homophily effects, dyadic matrices were constructed based on the absolute difference between two respondents. For example, the dyadic relationship between male and female educators would be coded as a relationship between educators with a different gender because the absolute difference between male (dummy variable = 0) and female (dummy code = 1) is 1. Smaller numbers thus represent greater interpersonal similarity in gender. The same procedure was carried out for grade level differences. To facilitate the interpretation of the models, we labeled the dyadic parameters different gender and different grade level. A negative parameter estimate for different gender would thus indicate that a Effect of Social Networks on Teaching Methods Effect of Social Networks on Teaching Methods ABSTRACT Background. Research on social networks in schools is increasing rapidly. Network studies outside education have indicated that the structure of social networks is partly affected by demographic characteristics of network members. Yet, knowledge on how teacher social networks are shaped by teacher and school demographics is scarce. Purpose. The goal of this study was to examine the extent to which teachers work related social networks are affected by teacher and school demographic characteristics. Method. Survey data were collected among 316 educators from 13 elementary schools in a large educational system in the Netherlands. Using social network analysis, in particular multilevel p2 modeling, we analyzed the effect of teacher and school demographics on individual teachers probability of having relationships in a work discussion network. Conclusions. Findings indicate that differences in having relationships were associated with differences in gender, grade level, working hours, formal position, and experience. We also found that educators tend to prefer relationships with educators with the same gender and from the same grade level. Moreover, years of shared experience as a school team appeared to affect the likelihood of teacher relationships around work related discussion. INTRODUCTION Relationships among educators are more and more regarded as an important element to schools functioning, and a potential source of school improvement. Educational practitioners and scholars around the world are targeting teacher interaction as a way to facilitate knowledge exchange and shared teacher practice through a variety of collaborative initiatives, such as communities of practice, professional learning communities, and social networks (Daly Finnigan, 2009; Hord, 1997; Lieberman McLaughlin, 1992; Wenger, 1998). The growing literature base around these concepts suggests that relationships matter for fostering a climate of trust and a safe and open environment to implement reform and engage in innovative teacher practices (Bryk Schneider, 2002; Louis, Marks, Kruse, 1996; Coburn Russell, 2008; Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, Galagher, 2007). Social network literature asserts that relationships matter because the configuration of social relationships offers opportunities and constraints for collective action (Burt, 1983, Coleman, 1990; Granovetter, 1973; Lochner, Kawachi, Kennedy, 1999). For instance, the extent to which an organizational network supports the rate and ease with which knowledge and information flows through the organization may provide it with an advantage over its competitors (Nahapiet Ghoshal, 1998; Tsai, 2001). While social network studies have mainly concentrated on the consequences of social networks for individuals and groups, less attention has been paid to how social networks are conditioned upon individual characteristics and behavior (Borgatti Foster, 2003). A developing set of studies in organizational literature is focusing on how attributes of individuals such as personality traits affect their social network (e.g., Burt, Janotta Mahoney, 1998; Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 2001; Madhavan, Caner , Prescott, Koka, 2008), how individuals select others to engage in relationships (Kossinets Watts, 2006; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001), and how organizations enter into alliances with other organizations (Gulati Gargiulo, 1999). These studies offer valuable insights in potential individual and organizational attributes that may affect the pattern of social relationships in school teams. Attributes that are especially worth investigating for their potential to shape the social structure of school teams are demographic characteristics (cf. Ely, 1995; Tsui, Egan, OReilly, 1992). Demographic characteristics are more or less constant elements that typify teachers, their relationships, and schools based on socio-economic factors such as age, gender, teaching experience, and school team composition. Several network studies have suggested that networks are at least in part shaped by demographic characteristics of individuals, their dyadic relationships, and the network (Brass, 1984; Heyl, 1996; Ibarra 1992, 1995; Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). For instance, several studies reported that relationships among individuals with the same gender are more likely than relationships among individuals with opposite gender (a so-called homophily effect) (Baerveldt, Van Duijn, Vermeij, Van Hemert, 2004; McPherson, Smith-Lovin Co ok, 2001). These studies, however, seldom purposely aim to examine the impact of demographic characteristics on social networks and consequently only include few demographic variables of network members. Insights in the extent to which social relationships are formed in the light of multiple individual and organizational demographic characteristics are limited, and even more so in the context of education. We argue that such groundwork knowledge is crucial for all those who aim to optimize social networks in support of school improvement and, ultimately, student achievement. This chapter aims to examine the extent to which social networks in school teams are shaped by individual, dyadic, and school level demographic variables, such as teachers gender and age, school team composition and team experience, and students socio-economic status. We conducted a study among 316 educators in 13 Dutch elementary schools. Results of this study were expected to increase insights in the constant social forces that may partly define teachers relationships in their school teams, and discover potential tendencies around, for example, homophily and structural balance. Based on a literature review of social network studies that include demographic variables in a wide range of settings, we pose several hypotheses on the extent to which demographical variables at the individual, dyadic, and school level may affect teachers social networks. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Individual level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Social network literature has suggested various individual demographic characteristics to affect their pattern of relationships, and as such social networks as a whole (Heyl, 1996; Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). Following these suggestions, we will first review how individual level demographic characteristics may affect teachers social networks. We focus on the individual demographics gender, formal position, working hours, experience at school, age, and grade level for their potential influence on teachers patterns of social relationships and school teams social network structure. Gender. The likelihood of having relationships in a network may be associated with gender (Metz Tharenou, 2001; Moore, 1990; Stoloff et al., 1999; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). Previous research has indicated that gender affects network formation (Burt et al., 1998; Hughes, 1946; Ibarra, 1993, 1995, Moore, 1990; Pugliesi, 1998; Van Emmerik, 2006) and that, in general, women tend to have more relationships than men (Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 1998). These differences are already found in childhood (Frydenberg Lewis, 1993) and continue to exist through life (Parker de Vries, 1993; Van der Pompe De Heus, 1993). In various settings and cultures, both men and women were found to use men as network routes to achieve their goals and acquire information from more distant domains (Aldrich et al., 1989; Bernard et al., 1988). Following these findings, we hypothesize that male teachers will have a higher likelihood of receiving more relationships than female tea chers, and women will send more relationships than men (Hypothesis 1a). Formal position. Previous research in organizations (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Moore, 1990) and education (Coburn, 2005; Coburn Russell, 2008; Daly Finnigan, 2009; Heyl, 1996) suggests that the formal position of individuals may be related to their relational activity and popularity. For instance, Lazega Van Duijn (1997) found that lawyers were more often sought out for advice when they held a higher hierarchical position. Research has indicated that the network position of an organizational leader is important in terms of access and leveraging social resources through social relationships as well as brokering between teachers that are themselves unconnected (Balkundi Harrison, 2006; Balkundi Kilduff, 2005). In line with these studies, we expect that principals will be more sought out for work related discussions than teachers. We also expect that principals will report to be involved in more relationships than teachers, since they depend on these relationships to gather informat ion and convey knowledge, plans, and expertise to support student learning and monitor the functioning of teachers and the school. Moreover, principals are reported to occupy a strategic position in the flow of information between the district office and teachers and relay important policy and organizational information from the district office to the teachers (Coburn, 2005; Coburn Russell, 2008). Therefore, we hypothesize that principals have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving relationships (Hypothesis 1b). Working hours. In addition, the number of working hours that an educator spends at the school may also affect his/her opportunity to initiate and maintain social relationships. Recent research suggests that the relationship between network embeddedness and job performance is related to working hours (Van Emmerik Sanders, 2004). In line with this finding, it is hypothesized that educators who work full time will have a higher probability of sending and receiving relationships than educators with part time working hours (Hypothesis 1c). Experience at the school. Another demographic characteristic that may affect an individuals pattern of relationships is seniority, or experience at the school. The previously mentioned law study (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997) indicated that senior lawyers had a higher probability of being sought out for advice than junior lawyers. Besides having more work experience, a perceived network advantage of senior lawyers may be that they have built more strong, durable, and reliable relationships over time, and therefore have access to resources that are unattainable for more junior lawyers. Accordingly, we hypothesize that educators who have more experience in their school team have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving work discussion relationships than educators who have less experience in the school team (Hypothesis 1d). Age. Network research in other contexts found age differences in relation to the amount of relationships that individuals maintain (Cairns, Leung, Buchanan, Cairns, 1995; Gottlieb Green, 1984). In general, these studies suggest that the amount of relationships that people maintain tend to decrease with age. However, with increased age, experience at the school also increases together with the amount of relationships based on seniority (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997). In concordance with the latter, we hypothesize that age will positively affect the probability of work related ties, meaning that older teachers are more likely to send and receive work related relationships than younger teachers (Hypothesis 1e) Grade Level. Within schools, formal clustering around grade level may affect the pattern of relationships among educators. The grade level may to a certain extent affect the amount of interaction among educators since grade level teams may have additional grade level meetings and professional development initiatives are often targeted at the grade level (Daly et al., in press; McLaughlin Talbert, 1993; Newmann, Kings, Youngs, 2000; Newmann Wehlage, 1995; Wood, 2007; Stoll Louis, 2007). Dutch elementary schools are relatively small compared to U.S. elementary schools, and are often divided into a grade level team for the lower grades (K 2) and a grade level team for the upper grades (3 6). The amount of relationships that teachers have, may partly be defined by the requirements of and opportunities provided by their grade level team. We may expect that teachers that teach upper grade levels send and receive more relationships than teachers that teach lower grade levels because o f the increasingly diverse and demanding curriculum in the upper grades combined with intensified student testing and preparation for education after elementary school. These conditions may require more work related discussion of upper grade level teachers than of lower grade level teachers. As such, we expect that teachers that teach upper grade levels have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving relationships than teachers that teach lower grade levels (Hypothesis 1f). Dyadic level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Dyadic level demographics are demographics that typify the relationship between two individuals. Dyadic level effects give insights in network homophily. Network homophily is arguably the most well-known social network concept that often explicitly focuses on demographic characteristics of network members. The concept of homophily, also known by the adage birds of a feather flock together, addresses similarity between two individuals in a dyadic (paired) relationship. Homophily literature builds on the notion that individuals are more likely to develop and maintain social relationships with others that are similar to them on specific attributes, such as gender, organizational unit, or educational level (Marsden, 1988; McPherson Smith-Lovin, 1987; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001). Similarly, individuals who differ from each other on a specific attribute are less likely to initiate relationships, and when they do, heterophilous relationships also tend to dissolve at a faster pace than homophilous relationships (McPherson et al., 2001). Homophily effects result from processes of social selection and social influence. Social selection refers to the idea that individuals tend to choose to interact with individuals that are similar to them in characteristics such as behavior and attitudes. At the same time, individuals that interact with each other influence each others behavior and attitudes, which may increase their similarity (McPherson et al., 2001). This is a process of social influence. In addition, individuals who share a relationship also tend to share similar experiences through their relationship (Feld, 1981). Homophily is related to the concept of structural balance. In the footsteps of cognitive balance theory, structural balance theory poses that individuals will undertake action to avoid or decrease an unbalanced network (Heider, 1958). Over time, people tend to seek balance in their network by initiating new strong relationships with friends of friends and terminate relationships with friends of enemies or enemies of friends (Wasserman Faust, 1997). As a result from this tendency towards structural balance, relatively homogenous and strong cliques may be formed that give the network some stability over time (Kossinets Watts, 2006). Structural balance and network homophily may have also have a negative influence on individuals social networks as the resulting network homogeneity and pattern of redundant relationships may limit their access to valuable information and expertise (Little, 1990; Burt, 1997, 2000). In this study we focus on two types of similarity that may define teachers relationships, namely gender similarity and grade level similarity. Gender similarity. A dyadic attribute that may affect teachers patterns of social relationships is the gender similarity between two teachers. Several studies have shown that work and voluntary organizations are often highly gender segregated (Bielby Baron, 1986, McGuire, 2000; McPherson Smith-Lovin, 1986, 1987; Popielarz, 1999; Van Emmerik, 2006). This gender homophily effect already starts at a young age (Hartup, 1993; Cairns Cairns, 1994; Furman Burmester, 1992). In the context of education, Heyl (1996) suggested an effect of gender homophily on interactional patterns among teachers, indicating that for men and women relationships with the opposite gender are less frequent or intense than relationships among men or relationship among women. In line with this suggestion, we hypothesize a homophily effect for gender, meaning that educators will prefer same-gender relationships over relationships with teachers of the opposite gender (Hypothesis 2a). Grade level similarity. Another dyadic attribute that may shape the pattern of teachers relationships is the grade level. In the Netherlands, schools are relatively small compared to the Unitesd States, with often only one full time or two part time teachers per grade level. Commonly, Dutch school teams are formally divided into two grade level levels representing the lower (onderbouw, often K-2 or K-3) and upper grades (bovenbouw, often grades 3-6 or 4-6), which are often located in close physical proximity. Recent research suggests that teachers who are located closely to each another are more likely to interact with each other than with teachers that are less physically proximate (Coburn Russell, 2008). Moreover, most schools have separate breaks for the lower and upper grades, and some schools hold additional formal meetings for the lower/upper grades to discuss issues related to these grades. Since shared experiences are argued to result in greater support among individuals (Fe ld, 1981; Suitor Pillemer, 2000; Suitor, Pillemer, Keeton, 1995), these organizational features will increase the opportunity for teachers from the same grade level to interact relative to teachers from a different grade level. Therefore, we hypothesize a homophily effect for grade level, meaning that teachers will more likely maintain relationships with teachers from their own grade level than with teachers that teach the other grade level (e.g., lower or upper level) (Hypothesis 2b). School level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Although teachers can often choose with whom they interact, the social structure of their schools network is partly outside their span of control (Burt, 1983; Brass Burkhardt, 1993; Gulati, 1995). Just as individual relationships may constrain or support a teachers access to and use of resources (Degenne Forse, 1999), the social structure surrounding the teacher may influence the extent to which teachers may shape their network so as to expect the greatest return on investment (Burt, 1992; Flap De Graaf, 1989; Ibarra, 1992, 1993, 1995; Lin Dumin, 1986; Little, 1990). Because of the embeddedness and interdependency of individuals in their social network, relationships and attributes at a higher level will affect lower-level relationships (Burt, 2000). As such, demographic characteristics at the school level may affect teachers patterns of relationships. We pose that the following school level demographic characteristics affect teachers pattern of social relationships: gender ratio , average age, school team experience, school size, school team size, and socio-economic status of the schools students. Gender ratio and average age. Above and beyond the influence of individual demographics on the tendency to form relationships, there may be aggregates of these individual demographics at the level of the school team that may affect teachers tendency to form and maintain relationships. Research in a law firm demonstrated that above the influence of individual level seniority, a lawyers position in the firms network was in part dependent on the ratio of juniors to seniors in the team (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997). For school teams, a compositional characteristic that may affect patterns of relationships is gender ratio, or the ratio of the number of female to male teachers. In a school team with a high ratio of female teachers (which is not unusual in Dutch elementary education) male teachers have fewer options for homophily friendships with same-sex peers than women. Therefore, male teachers in such a team may have a lower tendency to maintain relationships in general and a higher propens ity towards relationships with women than men in school teams with relatively more male teachers. Research confirms that the gender composition of a team may significantly affect gender homophily, with the minority gender often having much more heterophilous networks than the majority (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001). Therefore, we expect that the gender ratio of the school team will shape teachers social networks. In line with previous empirical work suggesting that women tend to have more relationships than men (Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 1998), we expect that teachers in school teams with a high female ratio will have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving ties than individuals in teams with relatively more male teachers (Hypothesis 3a). Along the same lines, if we expect that age will increase the likelihood of sending and receiving relationships, then increased average age of a school team may also enhance the probability of relationships. Therefore, we hypothesize that average age is positively related to the probability of ties (Hypothesis 3b). Team experience, school size, and team size. Prior research has indicated that individuals are more likely to reach out to others with whom they had previous relationships (Coburn Russell, 2008). Given the time and shared experiences that are necessary for building relationships, we may assume that the number of years that a school team has been functioning in its current configuration, without members leaving or joining the team, may affect teachers lilelihood of maintaining relationships. Therefore we include school team experience as a school level demographic that may positively affect teachers patterns of relationships (Hypothesis 3c). Other school demographics that may affect teachers inclinations to form relationships are school size (number of students) and team size (number of educators). Previous literature has suggested that the size of organizations and networks is directly related to the pattern of social relationships in organizations (Tsai, 2001). In general, the amou nt of individual relationships and the density of social networks decrease when network size increases. As such, we may expect a lower probability of relationships in schools that serve more students (Hypothesis 3d) and schools with larger school teams (Hypothesis 3e). Students socio-economic status. Social networks can be shaped by both endogenous and exogenous forces (Gulati, Nohria, Zaheer, 2000). An exogenous force to the school team that has been demonstrated to affect schools functioning is the socio-economic status (SES) of its students (Sirin, 2005; White, 1982). We argue that the socio-economic status of the children attending the school may influence the probability that teachers will form relationships. For instance, teachers perceptions of the urgency for communication and innovation may be dependent on the community surrounding the school. Typically, schools that serve more high-needs communities are associated with greater urgency in developing new approaches (Sunderman, Kim Orfield, 2005), which may relate to an increased probability of relationships among educators. Therefore, we hypothesize that teachers in low SES schools will have a higher probability of having relationships than teachers in high SES schools (Hypothesis 3f). METHOD Context The study took place at 13 elementary schools in south of The Netherlands. The schools were part of single district that provided IT, financial, and administrative support to 53 schools in the south of The Netherlands. At the time of the study, the district had just initiated a program for teacher development that involved a benchmark survey for the monitoring of school improvement. We selected a subsample of all the district schools based on a team size of 20 or more team members, since trial runs of the p2 estimation models encountered difficulties converging with smaller network sizes and more schools. The original sample consisted of 53 schools that, with the exception of school team and number of students, did not differ considerably from the 13 sample schools with regard to the described demographics. The context of Dutch elementary schools was beneficial to the study in three ways. First, the school teams were relatively small, which facilitated the collection of whole network data. Second, school teams are social networks with clear boundaries, meaning the distinction of who is part of the team is unambiguous for both researchers and respondents. Third, in contrast to many organizations, school organizations are characterized by relatively flat organizational structures, in which educators perform similar tasks and job diversification is relatively small. Often, educators have had similar training backgrounds, and are receiving school wide professional development as a team. Therefore, despite natural differences in individual characteristics, teachers in Dutch elementary school teams are arguably more comparable among each other than organizational employees in many other organizations, making demographic characteristics possibly less related to differences in tasks or task-rel ated status differences. Sample The sample schools served a student population ranging from 287 to 545 students in the age of 4 to 13. We collected social network data from 13 principals and 303 teachers, reflecting a response rate of 94.5 %. Of the sample, 69.9 % was female and 54.8 % worked full time (32 hours or more). Educators age ranged from 21 to 62 years (M = 46.5, sd = 9.9 years). Additional demographic information is depicted in Table 1 and 2. Instruments Social networks. We assessed the influence of demographic variables on a network that was aimed at capturing work related communication among educators. The network of discussing work related matters was selected because it is assumed to be an important network for the exchange of work related information, knowledge, and expertise that may affect individual and group performance (Sparrowe, Liden, Wayne, Kraimer, 2001). Moreover, according to the previous analysis into network multiplexity (see Chapter 1), this network appeared to be an instrumental network with relatively small overlap with expressive networks. We asked respondents the following question: Whom do you turn to in order to discuss your work? A school-specific appendix was attached to the questionnaire comprising the names of the school team members, accompanied by a letter combination for each school team member (e.g., Ms. Yolanda Brown = AB). The question could be answered by indicating a letter combination for each colleague who the respondent considered part of his/her work discussion network. The number of colleagues a respondent could indicate as part of his/her network was unlimited. Individual, dyadic, and school level attributes. We collected demographic variables to assess how individual, dyadic, and school level attributes shape the pattern of social relationships among educators. At the individual level, we examined the following individual attributes: gender, formal position (teacher/principal), working hours (part time/full time), number of years experience at school, age, and whether a teacher was teaching in lower grade or upper grade. At the dyadic level, we included similarity of gender and similarity of grade level (lower/upper grade). At the school level, we investigated school size, team size, gender ratio, average age, years of team experience in current formation, and students socio-economic status (SES). Data analysis Testing the hypotheses Since our dependent variable consisted of social network data that are by nature interdependent (relationships among individuals), the assumption of data independence that underlies conventional regression models is violated. Therefore, we employed multilevel p2 models to investigate the effect of individual, dyadic, and school level demographics on having work-related relationships (Van Duijn et al., 2004; Baerveldt et al., 2004; Zijlstra, 2008). The p2 model is similar to a logistic regression model, but is developed to handle dichotomous dyadic outcomes. In contrast to a univariate logistic regression model, the p2 model controls for the interdependency that resides in social network data. The model focuses on the individual as the unit of analysis. The p2 model regards sender and receiver effects as latent (i.e., unobserved) random variables that can be explained by sender and receiver characteristics (Veenstra, et al., 2007). In the multilevel p2 analyses, the dependent variable is the aggregate of all the nominations a team member sent to or received from others. A positive effect thus indicates that the independent demographic variable has a positive effect on the probability of a relationship. We used the p2 program within the StOCNET software suite to run the p2 models (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Van Duijn, Snijders, Zijlstra, 2004). This software has been recently modified to fit multilevel data (Zijlstra, 2008; Zijlstra, Van Duijn, Snijders, 2006). We make use of this recent development by calculating multilevel p2 models for our data. The social network data in this study have a three-level structure. Network data were collected from 13 schools (Level 3) with 316 educators (Level 2) and 11.241 dyadic relationships (Level 1). To examine the influence of individual, dyadic, and school level demographics on the likelihood of having work related relationships we constructed two multilevel models. In the first multilevel model, the effects of individual and dyadic level demographics on the possibility of having relationships were examined. In the second multilevel model, school level demographic variables were added to the model in order to explain the additional effect of school level demographics on the possibility of having relationships, above and beyond the effects of individual and dyadic level demographics. For the multilevel p2 models, we used a subsample of the 13 schools with a team size of 20 educators or more. We selected this subsample of 13 schools from a larger sample of 53 schools to reduce computing ti me and to examine schools that were more comparable in network size. Still, each model estimation took about six hours of computing time. How to interpret p2 estimates In general, effects in p2 models can be interpreted in the following manner. Results on the variables of interest include both sender effects and receiver effects, meaning effects that signify the probability of sending or receiving a relationship nomination. A positively significant parameter estimate can be interpreted as the demographic variable having a positive effect on the probability of a relationship (Veenstra et al., 2007). For instance, a positive sender effect of formal position with dummy coding (teacher/principal) means that the position with the upper dummy code (principal) will have a higher probability of sending relationships than the position with the lower dummy code (teacher). To assess homophily effects, dyadic matrices were constructed based on the absolute difference between two respondents. For example, the dyadic relationship between male and female educators would be coded as a relationship between educators with a different gender because the absolute difference between male (dummy variable = 0) and female (dummy code = 1) is 1. Smaller numbers thus represent greater interpersonal similarity in gender. The same procedure was carried out for grade level differences. To facilitate the interpretation of the models, we labeled the dyadic parameters different gender and different grade level. A negative parameter estimate for different gender would thus indicate that a

Their Eyes Were Watching God: Personal Relationships Essay -- essays r

Zora Neale Hurston, in keeping with themes dealing with personal relationships and the female search for self-awareness in Their Eyes Were Watching God , has created a heroine in Janie Crawford. In fact, the female perspective is introduced immediately. "Now, women forget all those things they don't want to remember, and remember everything they don't want to forget. The dream is the truth. Then they act and do things accordingly" (Their Eyes 1). On the very first page of Their Eyes Were Watching God, the contrast is made between men and women, thus initiating Janie's search for her own dreams and foreshadowing the "female quest" theme of the rest of the novel. "Detailing her quest for self-discovery and self-definition, it [Their Eyes] celebrates her [Janie] as an artist who enriches Eatonville by communicating her understanding" (Kubitschek 22). Janie is a Black woman who asserts herself beyond expectation, with a persistence that characterizes her search for the love that she dreamed of as a girl. She understands the societal status that her life has handed her, yet she is determined to overcome this, and she is resentful toward anyone or anything that interferes with her quest for happiness. "So de white man throw down de load and tell de nigger man tuh pick it up. He pick it up because he have to, but he don't tote it. He hand it to his womenfolks. De nigger woman is de mule uh de world so fur as Ah can see," opines Janie's gr...