Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ Essay Example

Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ Essay Swift’s ‘Gulliver’s Travel’ and Voltaire’s ‘Candide’ are typical literature works during the Enlightenment period. Both authors use satire in their works. Satire is literary form which means irony. Therefore, they have some similarities. They both want to expose human vices through satiric tone. Due to different personal styles, there are many differences between two novels. Two novels use satire to criticize human weakness. In ‘Gulliver’s Travel’, Swift makes up a horse society Houyhnhnm and a brutal animal Yahoo. Gulliver has to admit that human beings are yahoos after a series comparison between human and yahoo. Vices of human beings are exposed by the Swift’s satiric tone. In ‘Candide’, Voltaire presents a story of the voyage of Candide. By describing how Candide travel around the world and the ridiculous circumstances he encounters, Voltaire also use satire to reveals the corruption of human beings. Both of them follow the philosophic thinking which is passion verses reason. They are questioning human nature. What’s more, both authors create an inexistent society by imagination, horse society Houyhnhnm and gold city Eldorado. By comparing to reality world, the civilization of imaginary societies is more rational for human beings. This is how satire works. Creating a perfect world and comparing to corrupted society, it’s easier to convince readers. Satire is the tool of two authors presents their essential purposes that criticize the human weakness and questioning the human nature. The differences between two novels are significant. We will write a custom essay sample on Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Swifts ‘Gullivers Travel’ and Voltaires ‘Candide’ specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Although both novels are about characters’ travel, they are different styles. In ‘Gulliver’s travel’, Swift emphasizes the process how Gulliver realizes that he is a yahoo. No matter Gulliver description about the war among the princes of Europe, Queen Anne, and a first minister in the courts of Europe, or master’s observation about the characteristics of yahoos, Swift uses a strong critical tone to point out the vices of human beings. Gulliver uses tone of solemnity to explain how the yahoo and human have in common. Ironically, Gulliver insists to refuse his status of yahoo, the procedure of Gulliver’s acceptation to the status of yahoo is under a depressed atmosphere. When Gulliver backs home, he is still struggling to be a rational creature in his mind which is Houyhnhnm or to be a corrupted creature which is yahoo. Swift’s sharp criticism makes the novel isn’t as fun as ‘Candide’. However, it makes reader think over the purpose of his criticism. On the contrary, Voltaire’s ‘Candide’ is full of black humor. Although Candide goes through a lot of ridiculous circumstances and suffers a lot, the unexpected content makes his voyage funny. In ‘Gulliver’ Travel’, the observation of horse society and comparison between yahoo and human are important components of Swift’s satire. In ‘Candide’, every character expresses the satiric tone of Voltaire. Pangloss, teacher of Candide, always believe that â€Å"Everything is for the best in this best of all possible world†, escapes from death several times. He still insists his philosophic thinking which exactly brings him in trouble. Cunegonde’s brother constantly refuses Candide marry with his sister even Cunegonde isn’t beautiful anymore. Other characters like Cunegonde, the old lady, Martin, they all have been through a lot of misfortune circumstances. Each character has its own function to from Voltaire’s satire. Volvaire uses his tone of mockery to present a ridiculous voyage of Candide and reveal to us world is cruel place. The witness makes Candide’s voyage delight even they suffer a lot of misfortune. Readers easily convinced by their ridicules encounters. Satire is main method used in Swift’s ‘Gulliver’s travel’ and Voltaire’s ‘Candide’. As typical literature during enlightenment period, both novels are questioning about human nature. Swiftly uses critical tone to represent his idea. Voltaire uses humor to reflect the corruption of human beings. Two novels not only succeed to present the readers then about purpose of authors; but also are great treasure for readers now.

Capital Punishment Controversy essays

Capital Punishment Controversy essays No public policy concern has been debated so much persistently and aggressively as that of the capital punishment. (Unnever; Cullen, 2006) Is it necessary to permit a state to put to death few of its criminals? Has the capital punishment ethical sanction, or is it ethically essential, under particular conditions? Such questions are quite contentious and significant that has confronted US state legislatures during the current years. (Lee; Mooney, 1999) A comprehension of the US attitudes relating to capital punishment is vital in this backdrop not only because the US is again imposing execution to its criminal offenders, but since it generates a rough estimate of the standards of maturity of the American civilization. (Bohm, 1987) Capital punishment is an issue which has both supporters and those who oppose the concept. Even though capital punishment has been opposed on several grounds, it is to be understood that capital punishment is an issue which need to be supported for retributive reasons, wherein the punishment provided ought to be proportionate to the crime pretreated; for deterrent reasons so that future victims lives are saved from criminals; since it is cheap, less cruel and better than imprisonment; and since majority of the public are in favor of the issue irrespective of the fact that it has been argued that capital punishment is being racially biased. The issue of Capital Punishment controversy in the US is predominated by the deceptive voice of the anti-death penalty movement. The culture of lies as well as deceit is so influential that several of the falsehoods are presently incorrectly accepted as being facts. (Sharp, 1997) Those who are not in favor of capital punishment advocate that in the US for a short span after Gregg v. Georgia reestablished capital punishment there was stringent legal supervision of the capital punishment and much hurdle in its application, but that phase is prese...

Law of international organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Law of international organisations - Essay Example The idea of human rights receives formal universal recognition that the international community strives to maintain and enforce encoded through the United Nations Charter signed on June 26, 1945 with the main objective of saving generations of humans from war and reaffirms the faith in fundamental rights and freedoms. The main objective of the United Nations is to achieve international cooperation, through promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and the fundamental freedoms that accrue to them without the discrimination in terms of aspects such as sex, race, language or religion. It is important to note that the enforcement of these rights and freedoms can be undertaken through joint or separate actions by the member states. The provisions of the Articles of the United Nations Charter have the force of prudent international law as the charter is a treaty and binds to those nations that have ratified it. Therefore, state parties are required to fulfil the obligations and th e responsibilities enshrined in the Charter including the obligations to defend human privileges and the major liberties, the promotion of the observance of the civil liberties and the cooperation with the United Nations in attaining these inherent obligations. ... Since the Universal Declaration became international law there have been other conventions and treaties that create regional courts that also help in the enforcement of fundamental rights and freedoms. Due to the dramatic increase of human rights activities in the twentieth and twenty first century, there has been need to combine the monitoring of the human rights violations and matters concerning their enforcement. The establishment of the International Criminal Court formed a vital part of an emerging system of international human rights protection in that it is empowered to take legal action and castigate individuals liable for offenses against humankind. The growing international awareness of the need to protect human rights and guarantee freedoms has rejuvenated the need for upholding them. Yet, serious violation and deprivation of human rights and fundamental freedoms still exist that require a remedy in the shortest time possible. To remedy this situation, there have been regi onal courts with the jurisdiction to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms. However, these courts must strive and adhere to the already established norm that the supremacy of the United Nations Charter. In Britain, for example, the Human Rights Act of 1998 is an act of Parliament, whose main aim is to ensure that it gives further force the laws concerning human rights, contained in the European Convention and the United Nations Charter. It gives the courts in the United Kingdom the power to deal with those issues, which might cause the citizens of this country to go to the European Court of Human Rights. The act makes it illegal for all public bodies

Statistical Process Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Statistical Process Management - Essay Example According to research, the number of downtime errors for the samples chosen ranges from zero to ten. On the other hand, the fraction of defect for all software in each organization ranges from 0 to 0.1. This means that in every one hundred software, in each of the service-based organizations, the number of defective software ranges from 0 to 10. The data collected by PYRON Software Company is a collection of data gathered in 6 months. Therefore, in each month, the number of downtime errors for each of the service-based organizations ranges from 0 to 1.7. Also, the research done in all the 20 samples showed that the average percentage availability is 99.4%. According to the interpretation above, the service performance for the past six months for PIRON Software is in control. This is because the software are used by the organizations approximately 99.4% of the time, but the average defectiveness remains less than 10% (Oakland,

Leadership Profile of Mohmad Ali Jinah Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership Profile of Mohmad Ali Jinah - Essay Example Great suggestions proposed by the right being in the wrong situation, or to the immoral audience, or at the badly chosen time are meant to fail. Great leaders are those who employ and focus the appropriate combination of elements on the dot to impact their world in impressive ways. Remarkably, the majority of what we know about leadership derives from the observation of how folks relate to their immediate heads. Nonetheless, probing individual opinions of â€Å"leadership† at the national level is a striking intention (Meigs, 2001, p. 4). On the surface, it may look that leadership behavior, for instance, aligning progressions and procedures may be more effortlessly conceptualized at the national level than personal leadership deeds such as performing with decorum. Albeit leaders may appear and depart, the ways they embark upon tasks and state of affairs and care for people is of the essence. Path-goal theory is founded on the precepts of expectancy tenet which puts forward that subordinates will be forced if they suppose they are competent of completing their mission if they deem their exertions will effect in a positive ending, and if they think that the returns for accomplishing their work are meaningful. Leadership actions are normally classified as: 3. Achievement-oriented: The leader highlights the attainment of complicated tasks and the meaning of admirable performance and concurrently demonstrates buoyancy that subordinates will carry out well. Jinnah helped out subordinates in identifying their targets and simplified their chore. He confiscated barriers from their routes and supplied continuous patronage when the task was shapeless and multipart. He always picked a style of leadership which was best fitted to the subordinates, thus raised the contentment level of his subordinates.

Effect of Social Networks on Teaching Methods

Effect of Social Networks on Teaching Methods ABSTRACT Background. Research on social networks in schools is increasing rapidly. Network studies outside education have indicated that the structure of social networks is partly affected by demographic characteristics of network members. Yet, knowledge on how teacher social networks are shaped by teacher and school demographics is scarce. Purpose. The goal of this study was to examine the extent to which teachers work related social networks are affected by teacher and school demographic characteristics. Method. Survey data were collected among 316 educators from 13 elementary schools in a large educational system in the Netherlands. Using social network analysis, in particular multilevel p2 modeling, we analyzed the effect of teacher and school demographics on individual teachers probability of having relationships in a work discussion network. Conclusions. Findings indicate that differences in having relationships were associated with differences in gender, grade level, working hours, formal position, and experience. We also found that educators tend to prefer relationships with educators with the same gender and from the same grade level. Moreover, years of shared experience as a school team appeared to affect the likelihood of teacher relationships around work related discussion. INTRODUCTION Relationships among educators are more and more regarded as an important element to schools functioning, and a potential source of school improvement. Educational practitioners and scholars around the world are targeting teacher interaction as a way to facilitate knowledge exchange and shared teacher practice through a variety of collaborative initiatives, such as communities of practice, professional learning communities, and social networks (Daly Finnigan, 2009; Hord, 1997; Lieberman McLaughlin, 1992; Wenger, 1998). The growing literature base around these concepts suggests that relationships matter for fostering a climate of trust and a safe and open environment to implement reform and engage in innovative teacher practices (Bryk Schneider, 2002; Louis, Marks, Kruse, 1996; Coburn Russell, 2008; Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, Galagher, 2007). Social network literature asserts that relationships matter because the configuration of social relationships offers opportunities and constraints for collective action (Burt, 1983, Coleman, 1990; Granovetter, 1973; Lochner, Kawachi, Kennedy, 1999). For instance, the extent to which an organizational network supports the rate and ease with which knowledge and information flows through the organization may provide it with an advantage over its competitors (Nahapiet Ghoshal, 1998; Tsai, 2001). While social network studies have mainly concentrated on the consequences of social networks for individuals and groups, less attention has been paid to how social networks are conditioned upon individual characteristics and behavior (Borgatti Foster, 2003). A developing set of studies in organizational literature is focusing on how attributes of individuals such as personality traits affect their social network (e.g., Burt, Janotta Mahoney, 1998; Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 2001; Madhavan, Caner , Prescott, Koka, 2008), how individuals select others to engage in relationships (Kossinets Watts, 2006; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001), and how organizations enter into alliances with other organizations (Gulati Gargiulo, 1999). These studies offer valuable insights in potential individual and organizational attributes that may affect the pattern of social relationships in school teams. Attributes that are especially worth investigating for their potential to shape the social structure of school teams are demographic characteristics (cf. Ely, 1995; Tsui, Egan, OReilly, 1992). Demographic characteristics are more or less constant elements that typify teachers, their relationships, and schools based on socio-economic factors such as age, gender, teaching experience, and school team composition. Several network studies have suggested that networks are at least in part shaped by demographic characteristics of individuals, their dyadic relationships, and the network (Brass, 1984; Heyl, 1996; Ibarra 1992, 1995; Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). For instance, several studies reported that relationships among individuals with the same gender are more likely than relationships among individuals with opposite gender (a so-called homophily effect) (Baerveldt, Van Duijn, Vermeij, Van Hemert, 2004; McPherson, Smith-Lovin Co ok, 2001). These studies, however, seldom purposely aim to examine the impact of demographic characteristics on social networks and consequently only include few demographic variables of network members. Insights in the extent to which social relationships are formed in the light of multiple individual and organizational demographic characteristics are limited, and even more so in the context of education. We argue that such groundwork knowledge is crucial for all those who aim to optimize social networks in support of school improvement and, ultimately, student achievement. This chapter aims to examine the extent to which social networks in school teams are shaped by individual, dyadic, and school level demographic variables, such as teachers gender and age, school team composition and team experience, and students socio-economic status. We conducted a study among 316 educators in 13 Dutch elementary schools. Results of this study were expected to increase insights in the constant social forces that may partly define teachers relationships in their school teams, and discover potential tendencies around, for example, homophily and structural balance. Based on a literature review of social network studies that include demographic variables in a wide range of settings, we pose several hypotheses on the extent to which demographical variables at the individual, dyadic, and school level may affect teachers social networks. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Individual level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Social network literature has suggested various individual demographic characteristics to affect their pattern of relationships, and as such social networks as a whole (Heyl, 1996; Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). Following these suggestions, we will first review how individual level demographic characteristics may affect teachers social networks. We focus on the individual demographics gender, formal position, working hours, experience at school, age, and grade level for their potential influence on teachers patterns of social relationships and school teams social network structure. Gender. The likelihood of having relationships in a network may be associated with gender (Metz Tharenou, 2001; Moore, 1990; Stoloff et al., 1999; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). Previous research has indicated that gender affects network formation (Burt et al., 1998; Hughes, 1946; Ibarra, 1993, 1995, Moore, 1990; Pugliesi, 1998; Van Emmerik, 2006) and that, in general, women tend to have more relationships than men (Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 1998). These differences are already found in childhood (Frydenberg Lewis, 1993) and continue to exist through life (Parker de Vries, 1993; Van der Pompe De Heus, 1993). In various settings and cultures, both men and women were found to use men as network routes to achieve their goals and acquire information from more distant domains (Aldrich et al., 1989; Bernard et al., 1988). Following these findings, we hypothesize that male teachers will have a higher likelihood of receiving more relationships than female tea chers, and women will send more relationships than men (Hypothesis 1a). Formal position. Previous research in organizations (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Moore, 1990) and education (Coburn, 2005; Coburn Russell, 2008; Daly Finnigan, 2009; Heyl, 1996) suggests that the formal position of individuals may be related to their relational activity and popularity. For instance, Lazega Van Duijn (1997) found that lawyers were more often sought out for advice when they held a higher hierarchical position. Research has indicated that the network position of an organizational leader is important in terms of access and leveraging social resources through social relationships as well as brokering between teachers that are themselves unconnected (Balkundi Harrison, 2006; Balkundi Kilduff, 2005). In line with these studies, we expect that principals will be more sought out for work related discussions than teachers. We also expect that principals will report to be involved in more relationships than teachers, since they depend on these relationships to gather informat ion and convey knowledge, plans, and expertise to support student learning and monitor the functioning of teachers and the school. Moreover, principals are reported to occupy a strategic position in the flow of information between the district office and teachers and relay important policy and organizational information from the district office to the teachers (Coburn, 2005; Coburn Russell, 2008). Therefore, we hypothesize that principals have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving relationships (Hypothesis 1b). Working hours. In addition, the number of working hours that an educator spends at the school may also affect his/her opportunity to initiate and maintain social relationships. Recent research suggests that the relationship between network embeddedness and job performance is related to working hours (Van Emmerik Sanders, 2004). In line with this finding, it is hypothesized that educators who work full time will have a higher probability of sending and receiving relationships than educators with part time working hours (Hypothesis 1c). Experience at the school. Another demographic characteristic that may affect an individuals pattern of relationships is seniority, or experience at the school. The previously mentioned law study (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997) indicated that senior lawyers had a higher probability of being sought out for advice than junior lawyers. Besides having more work experience, a perceived network advantage of senior lawyers may be that they have built more strong, durable, and reliable relationships over time, and therefore have access to resources that are unattainable for more junior lawyers. Accordingly, we hypothesize that educators who have more experience in their school team have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving work discussion relationships than educators who have less experience in the school team (Hypothesis 1d). Age. Network research in other contexts found age differences in relation to the amount of relationships that individuals maintain (Cairns, Leung, Buchanan, Cairns, 1995; Gottlieb Green, 1984). In general, these studies suggest that the amount of relationships that people maintain tend to decrease with age. However, with increased age, experience at the school also increases together with the amount of relationships based on seniority (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997). In concordance with the latter, we hypothesize that age will positively affect the probability of work related ties, meaning that older teachers are more likely to send and receive work related relationships than younger teachers (Hypothesis 1e) Grade Level. Within schools, formal clustering around grade level may affect the pattern of relationships among educators. The grade level may to a certain extent affect the amount of interaction among educators since grade level teams may have additional grade level meetings and professional development initiatives are often targeted at the grade level (Daly et al., in press; McLaughlin Talbert, 1993; Newmann, Kings, Youngs, 2000; Newmann Wehlage, 1995; Wood, 2007; Stoll Louis, 2007). Dutch elementary schools are relatively small compared to U.S. elementary schools, and are often divided into a grade level team for the lower grades (K 2) and a grade level team for the upper grades (3 6). The amount of relationships that teachers have, may partly be defined by the requirements of and opportunities provided by their grade level team. We may expect that teachers that teach upper grade levels send and receive more relationships than teachers that teach lower grade levels because o f the increasingly diverse and demanding curriculum in the upper grades combined with intensified student testing and preparation for education after elementary school. These conditions may require more work related discussion of upper grade level teachers than of lower grade level teachers. As such, we expect that teachers that teach upper grade levels have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving relationships than teachers that teach lower grade levels (Hypothesis 1f). Dyadic level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Dyadic level demographics are demographics that typify the relationship between two individuals. Dyadic level effects give insights in network homophily. Network homophily is arguably the most well-known social network concept that often explicitly focuses on demographic characteristics of network members. The concept of homophily, also known by the adage birds of a feather flock together, addresses similarity between two individuals in a dyadic (paired) relationship. Homophily literature builds on the notion that individuals are more likely to develop and maintain social relationships with others that are similar to them on specific attributes, such as gender, organizational unit, or educational level (Marsden, 1988; McPherson Smith-Lovin, 1987; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001). Similarly, individuals who differ from each other on a specific attribute are less likely to initiate relationships, and when they do, heterophilous relationships also tend to dissolve at a faster pace than homophilous relationships (McPherson et al., 2001). Homophily effects result from processes of social selection and social influence. Social selection refers to the idea that individuals tend to choose to interact with individuals that are similar to them in characteristics such as behavior and attitudes. At the same time, individuals that interact with each other influence each others behavior and attitudes, which may increase their similarity (McPherson et al., 2001). This is a process of social influence. In addition, individuals who share a relationship also tend to share similar experiences through their relationship (Feld, 1981). Homophily is related to the concept of structural balance. In the footsteps of cognitive balance theory, structural balance theory poses that individuals will undertake action to avoid or decrease an unbalanced network (Heider, 1958). Over time, people tend to seek balance in their network by initiating new strong relationships with friends of friends and terminate relationships with friends of enemies or enemies of friends (Wasserman Faust, 1997). As a result from this tendency towards structural balance, relatively homogenous and strong cliques may be formed that give the network some stability over time (Kossinets Watts, 2006). Structural balance and network homophily may have also have a negative influence on individuals social networks as the resulting network homogeneity and pattern of redundant relationships may limit their access to valuable information and expertise (Little, 1990; Burt, 1997, 2000). In this study we focus on two types of similarity that may define teachers relationships, namely gender similarity and grade level similarity. Gender similarity. A dyadic attribute that may affect teachers patterns of social relationships is the gender similarity between two teachers. Several studies have shown that work and voluntary organizations are often highly gender segregated (Bielby Baron, 1986, McGuire, 2000; McPherson Smith-Lovin, 1986, 1987; Popielarz, 1999; Van Emmerik, 2006). This gender homophily effect already starts at a young age (Hartup, 1993; Cairns Cairns, 1994; Furman Burmester, 1992). In the context of education, Heyl (1996) suggested an effect of gender homophily on interactional patterns among teachers, indicating that for men and women relationships with the opposite gender are less frequent or intense than relationships among men or relationship among women. In line with this suggestion, we hypothesize a homophily effect for gender, meaning that educators will prefer same-gender relationships over relationships with teachers of the opposite gender (Hypothesis 2a). Grade level similarity. Another dyadic attribute that may shape the pattern of teachers relationships is the grade level. In the Netherlands, schools are relatively small compared to the Unitesd States, with often only one full time or two part time teachers per grade level. Commonly, Dutch school teams are formally divided into two grade level levels representing the lower (onderbouw, often K-2 or K-3) and upper grades (bovenbouw, often grades 3-6 or 4-6), which are often located in close physical proximity. Recent research suggests that teachers who are located closely to each another are more likely to interact with each other than with teachers that are less physically proximate (Coburn Russell, 2008). Moreover, most schools have separate breaks for the lower and upper grades, and some schools hold additional formal meetings for the lower/upper grades to discuss issues related to these grades. Since shared experiences are argued to result in greater support among individuals (Fe ld, 1981; Suitor Pillemer, 2000; Suitor, Pillemer, Keeton, 1995), these organizational features will increase the opportunity for teachers from the same grade level to interact relative to teachers from a different grade level. Therefore, we hypothesize a homophily effect for grade level, meaning that teachers will more likely maintain relationships with teachers from their own grade level than with teachers that teach the other grade level (e.g., lower or upper level) (Hypothesis 2b). School level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Although teachers can often choose with whom they interact, the social structure of their schools network is partly outside their span of control (Burt, 1983; Brass Burkhardt, 1993; Gulati, 1995). Just as individual relationships may constrain or support a teachers access to and use of resources (Degenne Forse, 1999), the social structure surrounding the teacher may influence the extent to which teachers may shape their network so as to expect the greatest return on investment (Burt, 1992; Flap De Graaf, 1989; Ibarra, 1992, 1993, 1995; Lin Dumin, 1986; Little, 1990). Because of the embeddedness and interdependency of individuals in their social network, relationships and attributes at a higher level will affect lower-level relationships (Burt, 2000). As such, demographic characteristics at the school level may affect teachers patterns of relationships. We pose that the following school level demographic characteristics affect teachers pattern of social relationships: gender ratio , average age, school team experience, school size, school team size, and socio-economic status of the schools students. Gender ratio and average age. Above and beyond the influence of individual demographics on the tendency to form relationships, there may be aggregates of these individual demographics at the level of the school team that may affect teachers tendency to form and maintain relationships. Research in a law firm demonstrated that above the influence of individual level seniority, a lawyers position in the firms network was in part dependent on the ratio of juniors to seniors in the team (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997). For school teams, a compositional characteristic that may affect patterns of relationships is gender ratio, or the ratio of the number of female to male teachers. In a school team with a high ratio of female teachers (which is not unusual in Dutch elementary education) male teachers have fewer options for homophily friendships with same-sex peers than women. Therefore, male teachers in such a team may have a lower tendency to maintain relationships in general and a higher propens ity towards relationships with women than men in school teams with relatively more male teachers. Research confirms that the gender composition of a team may significantly affect gender homophily, with the minority gender often having much more heterophilous networks than the majority (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001). Therefore, we expect that the gender ratio of the school team will shape teachers social networks. In line with previous empirical work suggesting that women tend to have more relationships than men (Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 1998), we expect that teachers in school teams with a high female ratio will have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving ties than individuals in teams with relatively more male teachers (Hypothesis 3a). Along the same lines, if we expect that age will increase the likelihood of sending and receiving relationships, then increased average age of a school team may also enhance the probability of relationships. Therefore, we hypothesize that average age is positively related to the probability of ties (Hypothesis 3b). Team experience, school size, and team size. Prior research has indicated that individuals are more likely to reach out to others with whom they had previous relationships (Coburn Russell, 2008). Given the time and shared experiences that are necessary for building relationships, we may assume that the number of years that a school team has been functioning in its current configuration, without members leaving or joining the team, may affect teachers lilelihood of maintaining relationships. Therefore we include school team experience as a school level demographic that may positively affect teachers patterns of relationships (Hypothesis 3c). Other school demographics that may affect teachers inclinations to form relationships are school size (number of students) and team size (number of educators). Previous literature has suggested that the size of organizations and networks is directly related to the pattern of social relationships in organizations (Tsai, 2001). In general, the amou nt of individual relationships and the density of social networks decrease when network size increases. As such, we may expect a lower probability of relationships in schools that serve more students (Hypothesis 3d) and schools with larger school teams (Hypothesis 3e). Students socio-economic status. Social networks can be shaped by both endogenous and exogenous forces (Gulati, Nohria, Zaheer, 2000). An exogenous force to the school team that has been demonstrated to affect schools functioning is the socio-economic status (SES) of its students (Sirin, 2005; White, 1982). We argue that the socio-economic status of the children attending the school may influence the probability that teachers will form relationships. For instance, teachers perceptions of the urgency for communication and innovation may be dependent on the community surrounding the school. Typically, schools that serve more high-needs communities are associated with greater urgency in developing new approaches (Sunderman, Kim Orfield, 2005), which may relate to an increased probability of relationships among educators. Therefore, we hypothesize that teachers in low SES schools will have a higher probability of having relationships than teachers in high SES schools (Hypothesis 3f). METHOD Context The study took place at 13 elementary schools in south of The Netherlands. The schools were part of single district that provided IT, financial, and administrative support to 53 schools in the south of The Netherlands. At the time of the study, the district had just initiated a program for teacher development that involved a benchmark survey for the monitoring of school improvement. We selected a subsample of all the district schools based on a team size of 20 or more team members, since trial runs of the p2 estimation models encountered difficulties converging with smaller network sizes and more schools. The original sample consisted of 53 schools that, with the exception of school team and number of students, did not differ considerably from the 13 sample schools with regard to the described demographics. The context of Dutch elementary schools was beneficial to the study in three ways. First, the school teams were relatively small, which facilitated the collection of whole network data. Second, school teams are social networks with clear boundaries, meaning the distinction of who is part of the team is unambiguous for both researchers and respondents. Third, in contrast to many organizations, school organizations are characterized by relatively flat organizational structures, in which educators perform similar tasks and job diversification is relatively small. Often, educators have had similar training backgrounds, and are receiving school wide professional development as a team. Therefore, despite natural differences in individual characteristics, teachers in Dutch elementary school teams are arguably more comparable among each other than organizational employees in many other organizations, making demographic characteristics possibly less related to differences in tasks or task-rel ated status differences. Sample The sample schools served a student population ranging from 287 to 545 students in the age of 4 to 13. We collected social network data from 13 principals and 303 teachers, reflecting a response rate of 94.5 %. Of the sample, 69.9 % was female and 54.8 % worked full time (32 hours or more). Educators age ranged from 21 to 62 years (M = 46.5, sd = 9.9 years). Additional demographic information is depicted in Table 1 and 2. Instruments Social networks. We assessed the influence of demographic variables on a network that was aimed at capturing work related communication among educators. The network of discussing work related matters was selected because it is assumed to be an important network for the exchange of work related information, knowledge, and expertise that may affect individual and group performance (Sparrowe, Liden, Wayne, Kraimer, 2001). Moreover, according to the previous analysis into network multiplexity (see Chapter 1), this network appeared to be an instrumental network with relatively small overlap with expressive networks. We asked respondents the following question: Whom do you turn to in order to discuss your work? A school-specific appendix was attached to the questionnaire comprising the names of the school team members, accompanied by a letter combination for each school team member (e.g., Ms. Yolanda Brown = AB). The question could be answered by indicating a letter combination for each colleague who the respondent considered part of his/her work discussion network. The number of colleagues a respondent could indicate as part of his/her network was unlimited. Individual, dyadic, and school level attributes. We collected demographic variables to assess how individual, dyadic, and school level attributes shape the pattern of social relationships among educators. At the individual level, we examined the following individual attributes: gender, formal position (teacher/principal), working hours (part time/full time), number of years experience at school, age, and whether a teacher was teaching in lower grade or upper grade. At the dyadic level, we included similarity of gender and similarity of grade level (lower/upper grade). At the school level, we investigated school size, team size, gender ratio, average age, years of team experience in current formation, and students socio-economic status (SES). Data analysis Testing the hypotheses Since our dependent variable consisted of social network data that are by nature interdependent (relationships among individuals), the assumption of data independence that underlies conventional regression models is violated. Therefore, we employed multilevel p2 models to investigate the effect of individual, dyadic, and school level demographics on having work-related relationships (Van Duijn et al., 2004; Baerveldt et al., 2004; Zijlstra, 2008). The p2 model is similar to a logistic regression model, but is developed to handle dichotomous dyadic outcomes. In contrast to a univariate logistic regression model, the p2 model controls for the interdependency that resides in social network data. The model focuses on the individual as the unit of analysis. The p2 model regards sender and receiver effects as latent (i.e., unobserved) random variables that can be explained by sender and receiver characteristics (Veenstra, et al., 2007). In the multilevel p2 analyses, the dependent variable is the aggregate of all the nominations a team member sent to or received from others. A positive effect thus indicates that the independent demographic variable has a positive effect on the probability of a relationship. We used the p2 program within the StOCNET software suite to run the p2 models (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Van Duijn, Snijders, Zijlstra, 2004). This software has been recently modified to fit multilevel data (Zijlstra, 2008; Zijlstra, Van Duijn, Snijders, 2006). We make use of this recent development by calculating multilevel p2 models for our data. The social network data in this study have a three-level structure. Network data were collected from 13 schools (Level 3) with 316 educators (Level 2) and 11.241 dyadic relationships (Level 1). To examine the influence of individual, dyadic, and school level demographics on the likelihood of having work related relationships we constructed two multilevel models. In the first multilevel model, the effects of individual and dyadic level demographics on the possibility of having relationships were examined. In the second multilevel model, school level demographic variables were added to the model in order to explain the additional effect of school level demographics on the possibility of having relationships, above and beyond the effects of individual and dyadic level demographics. For the multilevel p2 models, we used a subsample of the 13 schools with a team size of 20 educators or more. We selected this subsample of 13 schools from a larger sample of 53 schools to reduce computing ti me and to examine schools that were more comparable in network size. Still, each model estimation took about six hours of computing time. How to interpret p2 estimates In general, effects in p2 models can be interpreted in the following manner. Results on the variables of interest include both sender effects and receiver effects, meaning effects that signify the probability of sending or receiving a relationship nomination. A positively significant parameter estimate can be interpreted as the demographic variable having a positive effect on the probability of a relationship (Veenstra et al., 2007). For instance, a positive sender effect of formal position with dummy coding (teacher/principal) means that the position with the upper dummy code (principal) will have a higher probability of sending relationships than the position with the lower dummy code (teacher). To assess homophily effects, dyadic matrices were constructed based on the absolute difference between two respondents. For example, the dyadic relationship between male and female educators would be coded as a relationship between educators with a different gender because the absolute difference between male (dummy variable = 0) and female (dummy code = 1) is 1. Smaller numbers thus represent greater interpersonal similarity in gender. The same procedure was carried out for grade level differences. To facilitate the interpretation of the models, we labeled the dyadic parameters different gender and different grade level. A negative parameter estimate for different gender would thus indicate that a Effect of Social Networks on Teaching Methods Effect of Social Networks on Teaching Methods ABSTRACT Background. Research on social networks in schools is increasing rapidly. Network studies outside education have indicated that the structure of social networks is partly affected by demographic characteristics of network members. Yet, knowledge on how teacher social networks are shaped by teacher and school demographics is scarce. Purpose. The goal of this study was to examine the extent to which teachers work related social networks are affected by teacher and school demographic characteristics. Method. Survey data were collected among 316 educators from 13 elementary schools in a large educational system in the Netherlands. Using social network analysis, in particular multilevel p2 modeling, we analyzed the effect of teacher and school demographics on individual teachers probability of having relationships in a work discussion network. Conclusions. Findings indicate that differences in having relationships were associated with differences in gender, grade level, working hours, formal position, and experience. We also found that educators tend to prefer relationships with educators with the same gender and from the same grade level. Moreover, years of shared experience as a school team appeared to affect the likelihood of teacher relationships around work related discussion. INTRODUCTION Relationships among educators are more and more regarded as an important element to schools functioning, and a potential source of school improvement. Educational practitioners and scholars around the world are targeting teacher interaction as a way to facilitate knowledge exchange and shared teacher practice through a variety of collaborative initiatives, such as communities of practice, professional learning communities, and social networks (Daly Finnigan, 2009; Hord, 1997; Lieberman McLaughlin, 1992; Wenger, 1998). The growing literature base around these concepts suggests that relationships matter for fostering a climate of trust and a safe and open environment to implement reform and engage in innovative teacher practices (Bryk Schneider, 2002; Louis, Marks, Kruse, 1996; Coburn Russell, 2008; Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, Galagher, 2007). Social network literature asserts that relationships matter because the configuration of social relationships offers opportunities and constraints for collective action (Burt, 1983, Coleman, 1990; Granovetter, 1973; Lochner, Kawachi, Kennedy, 1999). For instance, the extent to which an organizational network supports the rate and ease with which knowledge and information flows through the organization may provide it with an advantage over its competitors (Nahapiet Ghoshal, 1998; Tsai, 2001). While social network studies have mainly concentrated on the consequences of social networks for individuals and groups, less attention has been paid to how social networks are conditioned upon individual characteristics and behavior (Borgatti Foster, 2003). A developing set of studies in organizational literature is focusing on how attributes of individuals such as personality traits affect their social network (e.g., Burt, Janotta Mahoney, 1998; Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 2001; Madhavan, Caner , Prescott, Koka, 2008), how individuals select others to engage in relationships (Kossinets Watts, 2006; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001), and how organizations enter into alliances with other organizations (Gulati Gargiulo, 1999). These studies offer valuable insights in potential individual and organizational attributes that may affect the pattern of social relationships in school teams. Attributes that are especially worth investigating for their potential to shape the social structure of school teams are demographic characteristics (cf. Ely, 1995; Tsui, Egan, OReilly, 1992). Demographic characteristics are more or less constant elements that typify teachers, their relationships, and schools based on socio-economic factors such as age, gender, teaching experience, and school team composition. Several network studies have suggested that networks are at least in part shaped by demographic characteristics of individuals, their dyadic relationships, and the network (Brass, 1984; Heyl, 1996; Ibarra 1992, 1995; Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). For instance, several studies reported that relationships among individuals with the same gender are more likely than relationships among individuals with opposite gender (a so-called homophily effect) (Baerveldt, Van Duijn, Vermeij, Van Hemert, 2004; McPherson, Smith-Lovin Co ok, 2001). These studies, however, seldom purposely aim to examine the impact of demographic characteristics on social networks and consequently only include few demographic variables of network members. Insights in the extent to which social relationships are formed in the light of multiple individual and organizational demographic characteristics are limited, and even more so in the context of education. We argue that such groundwork knowledge is crucial for all those who aim to optimize social networks in support of school improvement and, ultimately, student achievement. This chapter aims to examine the extent to which social networks in school teams are shaped by individual, dyadic, and school level demographic variables, such as teachers gender and age, school team composition and team experience, and students socio-economic status. We conducted a study among 316 educators in 13 Dutch elementary schools. Results of this study were expected to increase insights in the constant social forces that may partly define teachers relationships in their school teams, and discover potential tendencies around, for example, homophily and structural balance. Based on a literature review of social network studies that include demographic variables in a wide range of settings, we pose several hypotheses on the extent to which demographical variables at the individual, dyadic, and school level may affect teachers social networks. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Individual level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Social network literature has suggested various individual demographic characteristics to affect their pattern of relationships, and as such social networks as a whole (Heyl, 1996; Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). Following these suggestions, we will first review how individual level demographic characteristics may affect teachers social networks. We focus on the individual demographics gender, formal position, working hours, experience at school, age, and grade level for their potential influence on teachers patterns of social relationships and school teams social network structure. Gender. The likelihood of having relationships in a network may be associated with gender (Metz Tharenou, 2001; Moore, 1990; Stoloff et al., 1999; Veenstra et al., 2007; Zijlstra, Veenstra, Van Duijn, 2008). Previous research has indicated that gender affects network formation (Burt et al., 1998; Hughes, 1946; Ibarra, 1993, 1995, Moore, 1990; Pugliesi, 1998; Van Emmerik, 2006) and that, in general, women tend to have more relationships than men (Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 1998). These differences are already found in childhood (Frydenberg Lewis, 1993) and continue to exist through life (Parker de Vries, 1993; Van der Pompe De Heus, 1993). In various settings and cultures, both men and women were found to use men as network routes to achieve their goals and acquire information from more distant domains (Aldrich et al., 1989; Bernard et al., 1988). Following these findings, we hypothesize that male teachers will have a higher likelihood of receiving more relationships than female tea chers, and women will send more relationships than men (Hypothesis 1a). Formal position. Previous research in organizations (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Moore, 1990) and education (Coburn, 2005; Coburn Russell, 2008; Daly Finnigan, 2009; Heyl, 1996) suggests that the formal position of individuals may be related to their relational activity and popularity. For instance, Lazega Van Duijn (1997) found that lawyers were more often sought out for advice when they held a higher hierarchical position. Research has indicated that the network position of an organizational leader is important in terms of access and leveraging social resources through social relationships as well as brokering between teachers that are themselves unconnected (Balkundi Harrison, 2006; Balkundi Kilduff, 2005). In line with these studies, we expect that principals will be more sought out for work related discussions than teachers. We also expect that principals will report to be involved in more relationships than teachers, since they depend on these relationships to gather informat ion and convey knowledge, plans, and expertise to support student learning and monitor the functioning of teachers and the school. Moreover, principals are reported to occupy a strategic position in the flow of information between the district office and teachers and relay important policy and organizational information from the district office to the teachers (Coburn, 2005; Coburn Russell, 2008). Therefore, we hypothesize that principals have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving relationships (Hypothesis 1b). Working hours. In addition, the number of working hours that an educator spends at the school may also affect his/her opportunity to initiate and maintain social relationships. Recent research suggests that the relationship between network embeddedness and job performance is related to working hours (Van Emmerik Sanders, 2004). In line with this finding, it is hypothesized that educators who work full time will have a higher probability of sending and receiving relationships than educators with part time working hours (Hypothesis 1c). Experience at the school. Another demographic characteristic that may affect an individuals pattern of relationships is seniority, or experience at the school. The previously mentioned law study (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997) indicated that senior lawyers had a higher probability of being sought out for advice than junior lawyers. Besides having more work experience, a perceived network advantage of senior lawyers may be that they have built more strong, durable, and reliable relationships over time, and therefore have access to resources that are unattainable for more junior lawyers. Accordingly, we hypothesize that educators who have more experience in their school team have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving work discussion relationships than educators who have less experience in the school team (Hypothesis 1d). Age. Network research in other contexts found age differences in relation to the amount of relationships that individuals maintain (Cairns, Leung, Buchanan, Cairns, 1995; Gottlieb Green, 1984). In general, these studies suggest that the amount of relationships that people maintain tend to decrease with age. However, with increased age, experience at the school also increases together with the amount of relationships based on seniority (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997). In concordance with the latter, we hypothesize that age will positively affect the probability of work related ties, meaning that older teachers are more likely to send and receive work related relationships than younger teachers (Hypothesis 1e) Grade Level. Within schools, formal clustering around grade level may affect the pattern of relationships among educators. The grade level may to a certain extent affect the amount of interaction among educators since grade level teams may have additional grade level meetings and professional development initiatives are often targeted at the grade level (Daly et al., in press; McLaughlin Talbert, 1993; Newmann, Kings, Youngs, 2000; Newmann Wehlage, 1995; Wood, 2007; Stoll Louis, 2007). Dutch elementary schools are relatively small compared to U.S. elementary schools, and are often divided into a grade level team for the lower grades (K 2) and a grade level team for the upper grades (3 6). The amount of relationships that teachers have, may partly be defined by the requirements of and opportunities provided by their grade level team. We may expect that teachers that teach upper grade levels send and receive more relationships than teachers that teach lower grade levels because o f the increasingly diverse and demanding curriculum in the upper grades combined with intensified student testing and preparation for education after elementary school. These conditions may require more work related discussion of upper grade level teachers than of lower grade level teachers. As such, we expect that teachers that teach upper grade levels have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving relationships than teachers that teach lower grade levels (Hypothesis 1f). Dyadic level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Dyadic level demographics are demographics that typify the relationship between two individuals. Dyadic level effects give insights in network homophily. Network homophily is arguably the most well-known social network concept that often explicitly focuses on demographic characteristics of network members. The concept of homophily, also known by the adage birds of a feather flock together, addresses similarity between two individuals in a dyadic (paired) relationship. Homophily literature builds on the notion that individuals are more likely to develop and maintain social relationships with others that are similar to them on specific attributes, such as gender, organizational unit, or educational level (Marsden, 1988; McPherson Smith-Lovin, 1987; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001). Similarly, individuals who differ from each other on a specific attribute are less likely to initiate relationships, and when they do, heterophilous relationships also tend to dissolve at a faster pace than homophilous relationships (McPherson et al., 2001). Homophily effects result from processes of social selection and social influence. Social selection refers to the idea that individuals tend to choose to interact with individuals that are similar to them in characteristics such as behavior and attitudes. At the same time, individuals that interact with each other influence each others behavior and attitudes, which may increase their similarity (McPherson et al., 2001). This is a process of social influence. In addition, individuals who share a relationship also tend to share similar experiences through their relationship (Feld, 1981). Homophily is related to the concept of structural balance. In the footsteps of cognitive balance theory, structural balance theory poses that individuals will undertake action to avoid or decrease an unbalanced network (Heider, 1958). Over time, people tend to seek balance in their network by initiating new strong relationships with friends of friends and terminate relationships with friends of enemies or enemies of friends (Wasserman Faust, 1997). As a result from this tendency towards structural balance, relatively homogenous and strong cliques may be formed that give the network some stability over time (Kossinets Watts, 2006). Structural balance and network homophily may have also have a negative influence on individuals social networks as the resulting network homogeneity and pattern of redundant relationships may limit their access to valuable information and expertise (Little, 1990; Burt, 1997, 2000). In this study we focus on two types of similarity that may define teachers relationships, namely gender similarity and grade level similarity. Gender similarity. A dyadic attribute that may affect teachers patterns of social relationships is the gender similarity between two teachers. Several studies have shown that work and voluntary organizations are often highly gender segregated (Bielby Baron, 1986, McGuire, 2000; McPherson Smith-Lovin, 1986, 1987; Popielarz, 1999; Van Emmerik, 2006). This gender homophily effect already starts at a young age (Hartup, 1993; Cairns Cairns, 1994; Furman Burmester, 1992). In the context of education, Heyl (1996) suggested an effect of gender homophily on interactional patterns among teachers, indicating that for men and women relationships with the opposite gender are less frequent or intense than relationships among men or relationship among women. In line with this suggestion, we hypothesize a homophily effect for gender, meaning that educators will prefer same-gender relationships over relationships with teachers of the opposite gender (Hypothesis 2a). Grade level similarity. Another dyadic attribute that may shape the pattern of teachers relationships is the grade level. In the Netherlands, schools are relatively small compared to the Unitesd States, with often only one full time or two part time teachers per grade level. Commonly, Dutch school teams are formally divided into two grade level levels representing the lower (onderbouw, often K-2 or K-3) and upper grades (bovenbouw, often grades 3-6 or 4-6), which are often located in close physical proximity. Recent research suggests that teachers who are located closely to each another are more likely to interact with each other than with teachers that are less physically proximate (Coburn Russell, 2008). Moreover, most schools have separate breaks for the lower and upper grades, and some schools hold additional formal meetings for the lower/upper grades to discuss issues related to these grades. Since shared experiences are argued to result in greater support among individuals (Fe ld, 1981; Suitor Pillemer, 2000; Suitor, Pillemer, Keeton, 1995), these organizational features will increase the opportunity for teachers from the same grade level to interact relative to teachers from a different grade level. Therefore, we hypothesize a homophily effect for grade level, meaning that teachers will more likely maintain relationships with teachers from their own grade level than with teachers that teach the other grade level (e.g., lower or upper level) (Hypothesis 2b). School level demographics that may shape teachers social networks Although teachers can often choose with whom they interact, the social structure of their schools network is partly outside their span of control (Burt, 1983; Brass Burkhardt, 1993; Gulati, 1995). Just as individual relationships may constrain or support a teachers access to and use of resources (Degenne Forse, 1999), the social structure surrounding the teacher may influence the extent to which teachers may shape their network so as to expect the greatest return on investment (Burt, 1992; Flap De Graaf, 1989; Ibarra, 1992, 1993, 1995; Lin Dumin, 1986; Little, 1990). Because of the embeddedness and interdependency of individuals in their social network, relationships and attributes at a higher level will affect lower-level relationships (Burt, 2000). As such, demographic characteristics at the school level may affect teachers patterns of relationships. We pose that the following school level demographic characteristics affect teachers pattern of social relationships: gender ratio , average age, school team experience, school size, school team size, and socio-economic status of the schools students. Gender ratio and average age. Above and beyond the influence of individual demographics on the tendency to form relationships, there may be aggregates of these individual demographics at the level of the school team that may affect teachers tendency to form and maintain relationships. Research in a law firm demonstrated that above the influence of individual level seniority, a lawyers position in the firms network was in part dependent on the ratio of juniors to seniors in the team (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997). For school teams, a compositional characteristic that may affect patterns of relationships is gender ratio, or the ratio of the number of female to male teachers. In a school team with a high ratio of female teachers (which is not unusual in Dutch elementary education) male teachers have fewer options for homophily friendships with same-sex peers than women. Therefore, male teachers in such a team may have a lower tendency to maintain relationships in general and a higher propens ity towards relationships with women than men in school teams with relatively more male teachers. Research confirms that the gender composition of a team may significantly affect gender homophily, with the minority gender often having much more heterophilous networks than the majority (McPherson, Smith-Lovin, Cook, 2001). Therefore, we expect that the gender ratio of the school team will shape teachers social networks. In line with previous empirical work suggesting that women tend to have more relationships than men (Mehra, Kilduff, Brass, 1998), we expect that teachers in school teams with a high female ratio will have a higher likelihood of sending and receiving ties than individuals in teams with relatively more male teachers (Hypothesis 3a). Along the same lines, if we expect that age will increase the likelihood of sending and receiving relationships, then increased average age of a school team may also enhance the probability of relationships. Therefore, we hypothesize that average age is positively related to the probability of ties (Hypothesis 3b). Team experience, school size, and team size. Prior research has indicated that individuals are more likely to reach out to others with whom they had previous relationships (Coburn Russell, 2008). Given the time and shared experiences that are necessary for building relationships, we may assume that the number of years that a school team has been functioning in its current configuration, without members leaving or joining the team, may affect teachers lilelihood of maintaining relationships. Therefore we include school team experience as a school level demographic that may positively affect teachers patterns of relationships (Hypothesis 3c). Other school demographics that may affect teachers inclinations to form relationships are school size (number of students) and team size (number of educators). Previous literature has suggested that the size of organizations and networks is directly related to the pattern of social relationships in organizations (Tsai, 2001). In general, the amou nt of individual relationships and the density of social networks decrease when network size increases. As such, we may expect a lower probability of relationships in schools that serve more students (Hypothesis 3d) and schools with larger school teams (Hypothesis 3e). Students socio-economic status. Social networks can be shaped by both endogenous and exogenous forces (Gulati, Nohria, Zaheer, 2000). An exogenous force to the school team that has been demonstrated to affect schools functioning is the socio-economic status (SES) of its students (Sirin, 2005; White, 1982). We argue that the socio-economic status of the children attending the school may influence the probability that teachers will form relationships. For instance, teachers perceptions of the urgency for communication and innovation may be dependent on the community surrounding the school. Typically, schools that serve more high-needs communities are associated with greater urgency in developing new approaches (Sunderman, Kim Orfield, 2005), which may relate to an increased probability of relationships among educators. Therefore, we hypothesize that teachers in low SES schools will have a higher probability of having relationships than teachers in high SES schools (Hypothesis 3f). METHOD Context The study took place at 13 elementary schools in south of The Netherlands. The schools were part of single district that provided IT, financial, and administrative support to 53 schools in the south of The Netherlands. At the time of the study, the district had just initiated a program for teacher development that involved a benchmark survey for the monitoring of school improvement. We selected a subsample of all the district schools based on a team size of 20 or more team members, since trial runs of the p2 estimation models encountered difficulties converging with smaller network sizes and more schools. The original sample consisted of 53 schools that, with the exception of school team and number of students, did not differ considerably from the 13 sample schools with regard to the described demographics. The context of Dutch elementary schools was beneficial to the study in three ways. First, the school teams were relatively small, which facilitated the collection of whole network data. Second, school teams are social networks with clear boundaries, meaning the distinction of who is part of the team is unambiguous for both researchers and respondents. Third, in contrast to many organizations, school organizations are characterized by relatively flat organizational structures, in which educators perform similar tasks and job diversification is relatively small. Often, educators have had similar training backgrounds, and are receiving school wide professional development as a team. Therefore, despite natural differences in individual characteristics, teachers in Dutch elementary school teams are arguably more comparable among each other than organizational employees in many other organizations, making demographic characteristics possibly less related to differences in tasks or task-rel ated status differences. Sample The sample schools served a student population ranging from 287 to 545 students in the age of 4 to 13. We collected social network data from 13 principals and 303 teachers, reflecting a response rate of 94.5 %. Of the sample, 69.9 % was female and 54.8 % worked full time (32 hours or more). Educators age ranged from 21 to 62 years (M = 46.5, sd = 9.9 years). Additional demographic information is depicted in Table 1 and 2. Instruments Social networks. We assessed the influence of demographic variables on a network that was aimed at capturing work related communication among educators. The network of discussing work related matters was selected because it is assumed to be an important network for the exchange of work related information, knowledge, and expertise that may affect individual and group performance (Sparrowe, Liden, Wayne, Kraimer, 2001). Moreover, according to the previous analysis into network multiplexity (see Chapter 1), this network appeared to be an instrumental network with relatively small overlap with expressive networks. We asked respondents the following question: Whom do you turn to in order to discuss your work? A school-specific appendix was attached to the questionnaire comprising the names of the school team members, accompanied by a letter combination for each school team member (e.g., Ms. Yolanda Brown = AB). The question could be answered by indicating a letter combination for each colleague who the respondent considered part of his/her work discussion network. The number of colleagues a respondent could indicate as part of his/her network was unlimited. Individual, dyadic, and school level attributes. We collected demographic variables to assess how individual, dyadic, and school level attributes shape the pattern of social relationships among educators. At the individual level, we examined the following individual attributes: gender, formal position (teacher/principal), working hours (part time/full time), number of years experience at school, age, and whether a teacher was teaching in lower grade or upper grade. At the dyadic level, we included similarity of gender and similarity of grade level (lower/upper grade). At the school level, we investigated school size, team size, gender ratio, average age, years of team experience in current formation, and students socio-economic status (SES). Data analysis Testing the hypotheses Since our dependent variable consisted of social network data that are by nature interdependent (relationships among individuals), the assumption of data independence that underlies conventional regression models is violated. Therefore, we employed multilevel p2 models to investigate the effect of individual, dyadic, and school level demographics on having work-related relationships (Van Duijn et al., 2004; Baerveldt et al., 2004; Zijlstra, 2008). The p2 model is similar to a logistic regression model, but is developed to handle dichotomous dyadic outcomes. In contrast to a univariate logistic regression model, the p2 model controls for the interdependency that resides in social network data. The model focuses on the individual as the unit of analysis. The p2 model regards sender and receiver effects as latent (i.e., unobserved) random variables that can be explained by sender and receiver characteristics (Veenstra, et al., 2007). In the multilevel p2 analyses, the dependent variable is the aggregate of all the nominations a team member sent to or received from others. A positive effect thus indicates that the independent demographic variable has a positive effect on the probability of a relationship. We used the p2 program within the StOCNET software suite to run the p2 models (Lazega Van Duijn, 1997; Van Duijn, Snijders, Zijlstra, 2004). This software has been recently modified to fit multilevel data (Zijlstra, 2008; Zijlstra, Van Duijn, Snijders, 2006). We make use of this recent development by calculating multilevel p2 models for our data. The social network data in this study have a three-level structure. Network data were collected from 13 schools (Level 3) with 316 educators (Level 2) and 11.241 dyadic relationships (Level 1). To examine the influence of individual, dyadic, and school level demographics on the likelihood of having work related relationships we constructed two multilevel models. In the first multilevel model, the effects of individual and dyadic level demographics on the possibility of having relationships were examined. In the second multilevel model, school level demographic variables were added to the model in order to explain the additional effect of school level demographics on the possibility of having relationships, above and beyond the effects of individual and dyadic level demographics. For the multilevel p2 models, we used a subsample of the 13 schools with a team size of 20 educators or more. We selected this subsample of 13 schools from a larger sample of 53 schools to reduce computing ti me and to examine schools that were more comparable in network size. Still, each model estimation took about six hours of computing time. How to interpret p2 estimates In general, effects in p2 models can be interpreted in the following manner. Results on the variables of interest include both sender effects and receiver effects, meaning effects that signify the probability of sending or receiving a relationship nomination. A positively significant parameter estimate can be interpreted as the demographic variable having a positive effect on the probability of a relationship (Veenstra et al., 2007). For instance, a positive sender effect of formal position with dummy coding (teacher/principal) means that the position with the upper dummy code (principal) will have a higher probability of sending relationships than the position with the lower dummy code (teacher). To assess homophily effects, dyadic matrices were constructed based on the absolute difference between two respondents. For example, the dyadic relationship between male and female educators would be coded as a relationship between educators with a different gender because the absolute difference between male (dummy variable = 0) and female (dummy code = 1) is 1. Smaller numbers thus represent greater interpersonal similarity in gender. The same procedure was carried out for grade level differences. To facilitate the interpretation of the models, we labeled the dyadic parameters different gender and different grade level. A negative parameter estimate for different gender would thus indicate that a

Their Eyes Were Watching God: Personal Relationships Essay -- essays r

Zora Neale Hurston, in keeping with themes dealing with personal relationships and the female search for self-awareness in Their Eyes Were Watching God , has created a heroine in Janie Crawford. In fact, the female perspective is introduced immediately. "Now, women forget all those things they don't want to remember, and remember everything they don't want to forget. The dream is the truth. Then they act and do things accordingly" (Their Eyes 1). On the very first page of Their Eyes Were Watching God, the contrast is made between men and women, thus initiating Janie's search for her own dreams and foreshadowing the "female quest" theme of the rest of the novel. "Detailing her quest for self-discovery and self-definition, it [Their Eyes] celebrates her [Janie] as an artist who enriches Eatonville by communicating her understanding" (Kubitschek 22). Janie is a Black woman who asserts herself beyond expectation, with a persistence that characterizes her search for the love that she dreamed of as a girl. She understands the societal status that her life has handed her, yet she is determined to overcome this, and she is resentful toward anyone or anything that interferes with her quest for happiness. "So de white man throw down de load and tell de nigger man tuh pick it up. He pick it up because he have to, but he don't tote it. He hand it to his womenfolks. De nigger woman is de mule uh de world so fur as Ah can see," opines Janie's gr...

Behavior Modification In My Life

The three instances where I observe behaviorism in action is related to my home. I am a single parent of two. I have a son 21 and daughter 19 who still live at home. We work as a team and behaving appropriately is imperative. Instance 1: Though my children are very close to me and share all aspects of their lives with me, they expect me to leave them alone when they are with their friends.I have observed all the time from their facial expressions and gestures that whenever their friends come to our house, they expect me to leave them alone and not be a part of their group at that point of time.In this instance, the attitude of my children forces me to behave in the way, I do. My interactions with their friends are limited to a few customary greetings. I don’t need anyone to tell me to go the other room, because I automatically head towards other portions of my house when the young guests are around. This is because â€Å"Many attitudes are so well established and so frequentl y used that people can express them and act on them without a second thought. † (Smith and Mackie, 2002, p. 249)Instance 2: Whenever any three of us are late, the other two expects the late comer to inform how much time would he/she take to return back home and whether it would be possible for him/her to take the dinner with the family. In this instance the principle of commitment guide us to behave the way we do. Smith and Mackie rightly observed, â€Å"It’s not only our commitments to others that leads us†¦. Our commitment to maintaining a positive view of ourselves helps too. † (2000, p. 392) By keeping other members of our group informed, all the three of us not only reduce other members’ anxiety but also make them know how caring we are.This may cause each one of us some discomfort like talking on the mobile while driving, which is certainly not an acceptable behavior or excusing ourselves from an important lecture for a while which means loosing some precious moments, but we do it any way. Hence in order to project ourselves in a certain manner we slightly go out of the way which is unacceptable from not only the point of view of common norms but to our inner self too. Instance 3: Each one of us expect the other two members of our families to do their share of work and not overload just one person for the upkeep of the house.Though my daughter does not particularly like cleaning her room or washing the clothes, she does it half-heartedly. In this instance, the behavioral principle of obedience forces her to behave in a certain manner which she somewhat dislikes. She routinely engages in the cleaning activities, which strengthens the viewpoint that she is submitting to authority. In this case that authority is not only me, the parent but also the way in which we as a family are expected to behave to make life easier for each other.She does not want to loose the sanctity of a quiet and well-behaved family of ours by her regu lar cribbing about the activities she dislikes. Thus she abides by the rules of the family. The impact of behaviorism in popular culture has both negative and positive implications. We behave in a certain manner because we see others behaving in that manner. In the words of Mixon, â€Å"†¦behavior is the product of association. † (para. 11) Hence when we see others behaving properly we automatically follow their behavior. For example we don’t speak in a library when all the others are quiet. This is a positive implication of behaviorism.However we fall prey to bad behavior too, by seeing others. For example it is not good to litter a park but we don’t follow rules when we are in a park, where we see others have already littered it. This is a negative implication of behaviorism. Hence behaviorism conditions us and we get conditioned in both positive and negative ways. References Smith, E. R. , Mackie, D. M. (2 Ed. ). (2000) Social Psychology. USA: Psychology Press. Wagner, K. V. (2008). Retrieved Jan. 21, 2007 from http://psychology. about. com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism. htm Mixon, C. (2008). Retrieved Jan. 21, 2007 from http://www. barkingdogs. net/bmod. shtml

Entrepreneurship Snog

Entrepreneurship Snog Introduction Rob and Pablo, the co-proprietors of SNOG (a chain of U.K. based yogurt shops), mention that the secret behind their success lies not only in the type of product they sell but rather in the way in which they make each transaction an experience for their customers.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Entrepreneurship: Snog specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More What these two entrepreneurs are referring to is the general ambiance and feel that permeates a particular store or shopping area. This paper will examine the origins of yogurt chain â€Å"Snog† and the various entrepreneurial activities and concepts that contributed to its success within the U.K. market. Case Overview The U.K. yogurt shop market reveals a high degree of market saturation with brands such as Frae, Itsu, Moosh, Snog, YUforia, Yog and Pinkberry all competing for a slice of the U.K. consumer market. Furthermore, each company has their ow n variation of yogurt with some shops such as Snog advocating the use of organic ingredients while others pursue an approach of having unique flavors and overall affordability (Birkett, 2009: 21). With so many different stores and product variations already present in the U.K. market today this makes market penetration and the creation of sufficient brand awareness of a new yogurt shop all the more difficult to implement. What is Snog? The increasing awareness of health problems within the U.K. (such as obesity and diabetes) has contributed to a popular trend in many modern food products to target customers who want to derive health benefits from the products they consume. It is based on this that the yogurt enterprise â€Å"SNOG â€Å"is dedicated to providing healthier yogurt than its competitors (i.e. Pinkberry) since it is fat-free and uses natural ingredients with a mixture of fresh fruits, nuts and organic yogurt. Started by entrepreneurs Rob and Pablo, both men had come fro m diverse backgrounds yet were able to come together to start a coffee shop business concept that was quite successful and chose to branch out into other endeavors in their pursuit of a great entrepreneurial experience.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In a recent interview they talked about how they developed the initial concept of the shops interiors and the method of sweetening their products through the use of a sweetener importer from Mexico. They explained how they realized success in during an economic downturn was possible by making their shop an experience rather than merely thinking of it as a shop and they even planned the happy ambiance that pervades most SNOG yogurt shops as a method of drawing people in and enhancing their purchasing experience. When examining the interview it became apparent that the pilot-in-the plane principle was at work regarding the success that SNOG enjoys at the present. As it was mentioned earlier, the entrepreneurs took great pains in the planning process especially in terms of developing their brand image and this resulted in the popularity that SNOG enjoys today. As Gilbert (2010) notes in his study examining the pilot-in-the plane principle the success of a business is directly tied to the course that an entrepreneur chooses to take, this can come in a variety of forms and result in a plethora of different outcomes however in the end what determines success or failure is how entrepreneurs choose to guide their business and deal with the ramifications of their actions (Gilbert, 2010:83 91). Based on this it can be stated that proper planning and sticking to a business concept that places an emphasis on brand image and stability can result in a stable and profitable company (Picker, 1993: 19). Environmental Factors Making it into an experience Rob and Pablo state the following regarding what it takes to become a successful entrepreneur now we are in a recession and we see businesses that are successful, I think the one thing you see that they all have is a form of experience for their customers which is the most important part in everything, so we made sure that there was an experience at Snog. The experience that Rob and Pablo are referring is not just the quality of the product itself but what customers feel when they enter into a particular establishment. In the case of Snog all their outlets have a warm and friendly ambiance which is not only family friendly but actually promotes, in their words, a happy feeling for customers. For example, it can be seen that in the case of Apple Inc. (which is considered the world’s most valuable company) all their stores, no matter what country they are present in, have a stylish and ergonomic design that looks clean, modern and cutting edge which has come to exemplify the experience of buying products at an Apple store.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Entrepreneurship: Snog specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Based on the popularity of not only Snog but of Apple itself it can be seen that by making their store into an experience rather than just a store this helps to encourage buying behavior among their clientele and even repeat visits. As such for any business that wants to increase their customer base it is important to develop the experience their venue provides so as to better appeal to consumers and create repeat business (Heap, Chua, Dornhofer, 2005: 85-88). Translating the Idea into an Opportunity The following is an example of the process utilized by Rob and Pablo in their examination of the U.K. market and how a yogurt shop that focuses on healthy offerings and a friendly ambiance can result in a viable business. Market Examination Dobson Chakraborty (2008) in their examination of consumer trends within U.K. in the past 3 years has n oted that people are generally becoming more self-conscious regarding their health and physical appearance (Dobson Chakraborty, 2008: 333 -341). While Dobson Chakraborty (2008) do not precisely indicate whether this is the result of health awareness campaigns or the mass media Dobson Chakraborty (2008) does recommend that strategies in targeting todays brand of consumer should therefore concentrate on campaigns and the creation of consumer products that emphasize no fat, no cholesterol and with comparatively low calories (Dobson Chakraborty, 2008: 333 -341). It must also be noted that Beattie, Dhanani Jones (2008) has noted a distinct increase in the amount of consumers that have a greater degree of awareness regarding environmental and social responsibility. As Beattie, Dhanani Jones (2008) states, consumer trends in product and service patronage have been changing as of late towards companies who are involved or promote donations, recycling and preservation of the environmen t (Beattie, Dhanani Jones, 2008: 181 219). How They Coped with Risk and Uncertainty Focusing on Brand Image Further examination of the methods employed by Rob and Pablo in coping with uncertainty and risk reveals that they placed a heavy emphasis on brand image and how this generated a great deal of consumer interest for their yogurt store. Evidence of this can be seen in the very name they chose for their shop which is synonymous with the act of kissing within British culture. By creating a slight bit of controversy with the name they chose, the entrepreneurs were able to generate a significant amount of public interest which they converted into the very way in which the brand itself is correlated with something that is pleasant, exciting, spine tingling and above all interesting.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This is in direct contrast to the methods employed by other yogurt stores which focus more on traditional methods of brand formulation. This creates a certain advantage for Snog which has enabled the company to survive in an overly saturated yogurt store market and gives it a certain level of distinction as compared to the other brands available. As Neganova Neganova (2011) explains, a companys brand image helps to enamor it to customers in that through a distinctive way of presenting the companys products and services this enables it to distinguish itself from its competitors (Neganova Neganova, 2011: 261s of this can be seen in the brand image utilized by U.S. based Apple Inc. which has quite literally developed a cult following among millions of international consumers today (Barr Wright, 2010: 1-9). They did this by facilitating a brand image of distinctiveness and quality and further enhanced this by providing innovative products that subsequently created a whole new trend i n ergonomic design, stylish looks and above all advanced technological capability (Chandler et al., 2011: 375-390). Within the Middle East the telecommunication company Du which is based in the U.A.E has challenged the monopoly of Etisilat (a major internet and telephone provider which has been based in the U.A.E for decades) by providing cheaper services, better phones and above all as a new and hip brand image which has greatly facilitated greater consumer demand for Dus services (Masurel et al., 2002: 238). Another example can be seen in the case of the Philippines within South East Asia where the outsourcing company Convergys has in effect popularized jobs related to the customer service sector by presenting them in such a way that they appeal to new graduates of local colleges within the country (Prahalad Mashelkar, 2010: 132-141). These and other examples too numerous to mention show the importance of developing a particular brand image in order to entice consumers, win over potential employees or stay ahead of the competition (Hitt et al., 2011: 57-75). As such it is recommended for any company, newly established or not, to develop a brand image that appeals to the market segment they are targeting so as to facilitate a greater market share for the company. Focusing on Store Locations Another strategy employed by Rob and Pablo was to ensure that all Snog stores were placed in locations that have high pedestrian traffic so as to maximize the amount of people that take interest in the ambiance of the store and its product offerings. The pedestrian traffic alone that goes through Brewer Street on a daily basis is incentive enough to establish a store in such a location and makes the Snog shop there ideally placed in being able to take advantage of the daily pedestrian traffic in order to popularize the store’s image and offerings through various window displays and offerings on the street. It must also be noted that aside from the number of people that traverse Brewer Street on a daily basis the location itself is home to a variety of commercial areas such as department stores, food chains, restaurants, snack bars, fashion boutiques, etc which creates a spillover effect wherein people who finish their shopping from one store can go to Snog in order to rest and relax. My Entrepreneurial Profile In terms of the experience I have just undertaken in this project I have come to realize that there is more to entrepreneurship that just creating an effective product or service, rather it is necessary to develop a product’s branding, method of sales and consumer interaction. In fact when taking all the facts mentioned into consideration it becomes obvious that what I know now is still woefully inadequate in terms of being able to successfully establish my own business. I still need more experience in terms of understanding markets, determining what works and what will not. I need to be able to make mistakes in order to learn fr om them and as such I believe that it is necessary that I learn under more entrepreneurs in the future in order to understand what they did and the mistakes they made so as to avoid making them in the future. I plan to utilize this to my advantage by talking to as many entrepreneurs as I can, expand my current network and attempt to determine what the market needs and how I can provide it. By doing so I believe I can become a great entrepreneur and as such I owe a lot to this current project in enabling me to see what is necessary in creating an effective business endeavor. Enhancing my Entrepreneurial Capabilities All business endeavors have a certain degree of risk which can come from the interaction of businesses with market forces yet entrepreneurs can limit the amount of risk they are exposed to by taking the proper steps to ensure that their business stands on a solid and stable platform which acts as the best insulator there is against market risks (Farber, 2008: 73). As a st udent taking up this entrepreneurial course I have been taught numerous lessons which I believe will help me in my future entrepreneurial activities and as such I believe this gives me a distinct advantage over other people in the same career that have not received the same level of educational quality I have. Lessons I learned: Focus on Quality One of the most important factors in creating and maintaining a successful business is a focus on quality and ensuring that any product bought by a customer is not the result of inferior production or workmanship. What must be understood is that customers tend to patronize businesses that show that they care about their customer by ensuring the strictest measures are followed in product quality (Baum Bird, 2010: 397 412). In instances where a company has failed to live up to the expectations of consumers regarding the overall quality of a product it is often seen that such companies tend to lose customers in droves (Baum Bird, 2010: 397 412). This was seen in various technology companies such as Dell that neglected to implement proper quality control measures on its motherboards resulting in several computers being sold whose motherboards leaked chemicals when overheated. Such a fiasco was a nightmare for Dell and ruined its reputation with several of its customers in effect sending them to other companies as a result. It is based on this that it can be seen that a focus on quality is an important aspect for any company to follow in order to grow and maintain its consumer base. Adapting to Changes in Business Environments Another factor that businesses should take into consideration is adapting to changes within local business environments. What must be understood is that businesses dont operate within a vacuum and as such it becomes necessary to observe that occurs within local business environments and respond accordingly (Chell Baines, 2000: 195-215). This can come in the form of expanding during times of econo mic prosperity or cutting back and outsourcing specific aspects of the companys operations during lean economic times. Not only that, companies should be prepared to respond to changing consumer trends in order to stay relevant lest they fall into obscurity and stagnation (Chell Baines, 2000: 195-215). Reference List Barr, S, Wright, J 2010, Postprandial energy expenditure in whole-food and processed-food meals: implications for daily energy expenditure, Food Nutrition Research, 54, pp. 1-9, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Baum, J, Bird, B 2010, The Successful Intelligence of High-Growth Entrepreneurs: Links to New Venture Growth, Organization Science, 21, 2, pp. 397-412, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Beattie, V, Dhanani, A, Jones, M 2008, investigating presentational change in u.k. annual reports, Journal Of Business Communication, 45, 2, pp. 181-222, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Birkett, R 2009, Is yogurt the new ice-cream?, Caterer Hotelkeeper, 199, 4592, p p. 20-21, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Chandler, G, DeTienne, D, McKelvie, A, Mumford, T 2011, Causation and effectuation processes: A validation study, Journal Of Business Venturing, 26, 3, pp. 375-390, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Chell, E, Baines, S 2000, Networking entrepreneurship and microbusiness behaviour, Entrepreneurship Regional Development, 12, 3, pp. 195-215, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Dobson, P, Chakraborty, R 2008, Buyer power in the U.K. groceries market, Antitrust Bulletin, 53, 2, pp. 333-368, Literary Reference Center, EBSCOhost. Farber, B 2008, Sell: constructive criticism, Entrepreneur, 36, 11, p. 73, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Gilbert, D 2010, Integrating theory and practice for student entrepreneurs:: An applied learning model, Journal Of Enterprising Culture, 18, 1, pp. 83-106, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Heap, A, Chua, C, Dornhofer, J 2005, Why the forecast is cloudy for UK credit card securitization, International Financial Law Review, 24, pp. 85-88, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Hitt, M, Ireland, R, Sirmon, D, Trahms, C 2011, Strategic Entrepreneurship: Creating Value for Individuals, Organizations, and Society, Academy Of Management Perspectives, 25, 2, pp. 57-75, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Masurel, E, Nijkamp, P, Tastan, M, Vindigni, G 2002, Motivations and Performance Conditions for Ethnic Entrepreneurship, Growth Change, 33, 2, p. 238, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Neganova, V, Neganova, I 2011, Development of innovation products based on the consumers preferences, International Journal Of Management Cases, 13, 4, pp. 261-266, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Neuts, D 2011, Exercise your marketing muscles, Quill, 99, 4, p. 80, Literary Reference Center, EBSCOhost. Picker, L 1993, Getting ahead in a tough economy: Three approaches, Working Woman, 18, 1, p. 19, MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost. Prahalad, C, Mashelkar, R 2010, Innovations Holy Grail, Harvard Busin ess Review, 88, 7/8, pp. 132-141, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost.